EFORE,DURh\G 

AND 

AFTER  1914 


ANTON   NYSTRO'-'' 


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IJF.FOHi:,   DITHING,  AM) 
AFTER   1914 


BEFORE,  DURING,  AM) 
AFIEH  1914 

BY 

ANTON  NY8TR()M 


TRANSLATED  BY 
H.  G.  i)K  WALTERSTORFF 


WITH  AN  INTRODUCTION  BY 
EDMUND  GOSSE,  C.B.  LL.D. 


NEW  YORK 
CHARLES   SCRIBNERS   SONS 

1916 


SRLF 


Si  I 
/'?/V 


INTRODUCTION 

Much  has  been  said  about  the  dcheacy  of  Sweden's  political 
disposition,  and  the  ontpourinjjfs  of  such  Swedish  activists 
as  the  egregious  Sven  liedin  have  had  enough,  and  more 
than  enough,  notice  given  them  by  English  journalists. 
The  pro-German  opinions  of  this  small  class  of  Swedish 
militarists  and  meddlers  are  not  those  of  the  vast  majority 
of  the  inhabitants  of  eastern  Scandinavia.  Too  little  has 
been  said  in  any  of  the  Allied  countries  of  the  existence  of 
a  consistent  and  ])owerful  literature  in  which  some  of  the 
foremost  intellects  of  Sweden  protest  against  the  crimes  of 
Germany.  If  we  desire  to  know  the  real  views  of  the  best 
minds  in  Sweden,  we  ought  to  make  acquaintance,  not  with 
the  violent  propaganda  of  a  noisy  court  clique,  but  with 
the  volumes  of  Professor  Ernst  Wigforss  and  of  Ilerr 
C.  N.  Carleson,  the  remarkal)lc  Black  Week  of  Ilerr  Anton 
Karlgren,  the  essays  of  Professor  X.  Eden,  the  leading  arti- 
cles in  the  princi])al  Swedish  newspa})ers,  Dagens  Nyheter, 
Stock}iolm^lid»in<^en,  Guleborgspo.slen,  Karhtadsiidningen, 
and  many  others.  If  further  evidence  were  needed  that 
Sweden,  as  a  whole,  is  not  pro-German,  it  is  found  in  the 
constant  flow  of  speeches  by  the  leader  of  the  Social  Demo- 
cratic Party,  Ilerr  Hjalmar  Branting.  and  by  the  late 
Liberal  Prime  Minister,  Ilerr  Karl  Staai'f. 

The  very  fact  that  an  admiratit)n  of  German  methods 
and  an  indulgence  for  German  kulliir  have  been  more  widely 
spread  in  Sweden  than  anywhere  else  outside  the  borders 
of  the  Central  Empires  gives  a  special  value  to  the  opinion 
of  those  Swedes  who  have  had  the  courage  to  oppose  the 

v 


vi  Introduction 

stream  of  lying  literature  steadily  flowing  from  Btilin, 
More  and  more,  as  the  truth  has  filtered  throuj^ii  to  Sean- 
dinavia,  honourable  and  able  writers  in  Sweden  have 
weighed  the  issues  in  the  balanee,  and  have  dreided  in 
favour  of  the  Allies.  But  it  nuist  ne\(.r  be  fitr<,'otten  that 
German  i)roj)aganda  is  n»>t  merely  untiring,  it  is  protean. 
At  every  turn  of  the  war  it  takes  new  shaj)es,  and  l)ani(  s 
the  uninf«>rnu-d  by  its  iu^^'cuuity  aiul  its  iiupudriu-r.  The 
judgment  whieh  survi\ts  its  attaeks  in  a  friendly  nrutral 
eountry  is  healthy  imUtd,  and  a  jxtuliar  \alui'  attaehes 
to  thi'  ex|K)sures  madi'  by  Swedish  writers  of  authority, 
in  which  the  guilt  of  bloodshed  is  brought  lK>mc  to  Germany 
witli  overwhelming  foree.  Hul  among  llu'  protagonists 
whom  we  have  mentionrd,  nt>n<  earriis  luon-  weight  or 
speaks  frnm  a  rij)er  (.'Xpcrienec  of  men  and  affairs  than 
Ilerr  \ystrom,  \vhost'  views  are  presented  to  the  Knglish 
publie. 

Some  notion  of  the  eareer  and  aeti\  ity  of  so  r<  niaikable 
a  writer  nuiy  be  welcome  to  his  English  reaih  rs.  Anton 
X\str()m  was  born  at  (iot henl)uri:  on  r"el)ruary  !."»,  ISli'. 
\\<  studied  medicine  at  I'psala  and  at  Stoekhojiu,  and 
with  a  Tlusis  the  title  of  which  Ixtrays  his  lifilong 
interest  in  jiractical  mattt  rs,  77/c  Foal  imd  the  lii<j.}it 
Shapt'  of  the  S/nx'  he  Ixgaii  his  loii;^'  literary  caiec  r  in 
isr,7.  He  sp(  nt  two  years  in  \isits  to  foreign  medical 
scjiools,  successively  making  liinis<lf  at  home  in  ('o[)in- 
liau<  n.  Herlin,  \'iemui,  Paris,  and  I-onddn,  and  then,  in 
lMi'.».  he  s(ffl((l  down  fo  1)1-  a  j  .laet  ising  phx'sici.an  in 
Stockholm.  II'-  had,  lio\\(\.r.  froni  early  youth  com- 
bined with  seiiiitilic  iii\  (  nI  i'jat  ion  a  passion  for  philo- 
sophical sjieculat  joii,  and  this  found  its  earlii  st  e\pir,-.ion 
in  ls7.*{,  in  a  \(ilume  (utitlid  Jimis  atnl  Chri ^1  itiiiilif 
iiiunl  imtii  a  Si  ii  nlifi('  SiiimlfKnut .  In  I/iiidon  .and  in 
I'.iris  I|.  had  become  ae(]u;iinlid  wilji  f  h'  \  n  w  s  .and 
wiitin;,'s  ol  .\iiguste  Comte.  to  whieh  he  was  instalitU' 
at  1 1  art .  d.  and  in  \s' 7t  he  madi-  a  profession  of  I  Ik-  (omt  ist 
faith.  II-  introduced  Posit  i\|.,iii  into  .Swedin,  fouinh  d 
a  journal,  was  recogni/.(  li  by   Pierre  I.atitte  as  a  mainstay 


Introduction  vii 

of  tlic  movement,  and  lectured  througli  Sweden  on  tlie 
philosophy  of  Comte.  This  exposition  of  Positivism  was 
Dr.  Xystrom's  })rincij)al  oeeupalion  until  after  1871>. 

In  1880  he  startetl  the  praetieal  work  by  which  he  is 
doubtless  most  widely  known  in  his  native  country.  Tliis 
was  a  far-reaching  effort  to  raise  the  intellectual  level  of 
the  working  classes  of  Sweden.  He  founded  the  Working 
Man's  Institute  in  Stockholm,  with  courses  ol'  [)Oj)ular 
lectures  on  almost  every  branch  of  scientific  knowledge. 
Here  he  devel()[)ed  a  system  of  education,  by  means  of 
evening  courses,  completed  in  a  period  of  eight  months 
in  the  year.  The  scheme  was  conceived  in  a  manner 
extremely  adaptable  to  the  habits  of  the  Swedish  artisan, 
and  it  enjoyed  a  surprising  success.  In  its  second  year 
the  Institute  was  subventioncd  by  the  city  and  later  \)y 
the  State,  and  it  branched  out  into  similar  bodies  formed 
in  all  the  principal  towns  of  Sweden.  Dr.  Nystrom 
remained  director  of  the  whole  enterprise,  and  when,  in 
1894,  the  Institute  was  able  to  build  itself  a  fine  hall  in 
Stockholm,  he  received  an  ovation  from  a  huge  assembly. 
He  himself  lectured  here  regularly  on  anatomy,  physiology, 
and  the  history  of  civilization.  The  results  of  his  medita- 
tions on  the  last-mentioned  theme  were  given  to  the 
])ublic  in  what  is  the  most  important  of  his  numerous 
literary  works,  his  Allmdn  kullurhistoria  (General  History 
of  Civilization),  which  appeared  in  six  volumes  between 
188G  and  1892.  This  work  the  author  designed  as  a 
sort  of  "  systematic  encyclopaedia  or  a  circle  of  scientific 
information."  He  seeks  in  it  to  bring  all  the  natural  sciences 
into  relation  with  sociology.  No  other  work  of  the  kind, 
executed  with  anything  like  the  same  fullness,  exists  in 
the  Swedish  language. 

In  more  recent  years  Dr.  Nystrom  has  extended  liis 
labours  in  the  direction  of  political  history,  and  has 
published  a  series  of  volumes  in  which  eontenii)orary 
problems  arc  carefully  examined.  In  Tlie  Main  Political 
Danger  for  Scandinavia  (1901)  he  faced  the  situation  in 
which  the  North,  and  particularly  Sweden,   finds  herself 


viii  Introduction 

in  it'latiun  to  Ikt  powtiiul  neijjli hours.  In  The  Wars  of 
I-At.sttrn  Europe  btiicicn  liusaia,  Poland,  and  Sucdtn  (11K);J) 
lu'  wtnt  still  nK»rr  clttply  into  this  iiujuiry.  In  the  |>r(- 
(.(tliiil^'  viar  Dr.  Nvstroin  luul  visited  .VlMict'-Lorrainc,  and 
he  recounted  liis  inii)rtssions  in  a  vohiini-  \vhifl»  was 
j)uhlislucl  sinuiltant()Usl\"  in  .Swichsli,  l-'rtncli  (witli  a 
pri  fact-  hy  .M.  .Millcrand).  and  (icrnian.  Ih-  projxiscd  the 
rtturn  of  tlu-  j>rovinc«s  to  France  in  cxchan^'c  for  tin- 
CHssion  to  Citrinany  ol"  some  of  the  l-reneli  colonics,  a 
s»)lnti(jn  of  tile  ditliciilty  which  he  fanc-ied  nii<,dit  lead  to 
a  St  tilt  (1  ()(aee.  In  the  course  of  the  j)resent  work  it  will 
he  not(tl  that  Ilerr  N\stroni  has  not  yet  al)andoned  some 
hojte  (»f  a  restoration  of  l'!uroj>ean  l)alance  l>y  means  of 
an  interehanLje  of  colonies. 

Of  the  medical  theoriis  of  Dr.  NystriMu,  exposed  with 
^'r(  at  IVankiu  ss  and  sometimes  with  a  certain  audacity, 
it  is  n<it  neeessarv  t(»  sjxak  here.  Nor  of  his  \aluahle 
contrihut  ions  to  pure  sociolo^'y.  such  as  his  (.'liristitiniiij 
(itid  Fit  I  'J'lioualit  (I'.MiS)  and  his  essay  on  the  protection 
of  t  he  ehildieu  of  t  lie  j)oor  (  I '.» 1  1  ).  Kuoui^'h  has  Ixcu  said 
to  show  how  multifarious  have  !)'•(  n  his  inttllectual 
acti\  ities.  ;iiid  it  will  (asily  Itr  reeo^rni/.( d  how  valuahle  the 
opinions  of  such  a  man  mu^t  l»( coiue  wIk  ii  tin  y  deal  with 
<jU(stions  (.f  the  moriK  nt  on  which  his  \ast  ranijc  of 
experit  ii<e  has  i.'i\(  n  him  authority  to  sjxak.  That 
Dr.  Nystrom.  after  full  relleetion,  has  so  unhesitat  imjiy 
]>roiiouiiei  (1  in  faN'our  of  tin-  I'jitente  .\llies  nuist  he  a 
matter  of  since  re  phasurt    to  all  patriotic  Fui/lishmcn. 

I^DNtlM)    (ioSSK. 


AUTHOR  S  PREFACE 

It  is  after  a  certain  amount  of  liesitation  that  I  have  made 
up  my  mind  to  })ublish  this  work.  Perhaps  it  will  meet 
with  disapi)rova],  seeing  that  it  is  not  only  a  reiteration 
of  the  notes  exchanged  between  the  Powers  bef(jre  the 
outbreak  of  the  World  War  and  of  their  leading  features, 
but  an  attempt  as  well  to  inquire  into  the  causes  of  the 
war,  and  must  therefore  grapple  with  the  question  of 
resj)onsibility. 

In  all  neutral  countries  the  citizens  have  been  exhorted 
to  maintain  a  neutral  attitude  in  their  discussions  concern- 
ing the  nations  at  war,  and  to  refrain  from  expressions  of 
opinion  in  favour  of  this  country  or  that.  I  have  seen 
recently  in  an  Italian  paper  warnings  to  this  effect,  but 
these  warnings  had,  it  seemed,  chiefly  the  object  of 
warding  off  enemies  from  Italy,  and  Maeterlinck's  ])ro- 
paganda  on  behalf  of  Belgium  was  looked  upon  there 
with  some  alarm,  as  it  might  tend  to  arouse  popular 
indignation  against  Germany  and  thus  jeopardize  an 
unbiased  judgment. 

On  this  point  there  is  much  to  be  said.  I  admit  that 
general  expressions  of  o[)inion  and  demonstrations  are 
improjx'r  and  may  ])rove  harmful  in  a  country  Avhich  has 
aflirmed  its  neutrality  ;  but  that  individuals  could  be 
absolutely  neutral  in  discussing  one  or  other  of  the  bel- 
ligerent Powers  in  this  the  vastest  war  in  the  history  of 
man,  is  unthinkable.  We  hear  in  Sweden,  in  private  circles, 
the  most  diverse  views  based  on  ancient  sympathies  for 
this  country  or  that,  on  ])ersonal  relations,  faith  in  the 

ix 


X  AiTiroivs  Prffack 

ojiinions  of  a  ceitaiii  luwspaptr,   iiioix"  or  Ie>s  voracious 
inforiiiat  ion,  <  tc. 

Swrdni,  like  tlic  other  Scandinavian  countrirs,  has 
ollicially  drclar' »1  ii(  r  neutrality  in  this  ^^'orld  \\'ar,  and 
ri^ditly  so.  On  this  |)oiut  pulihc  opinion  in  Sweden  is 
really  at  one.  Apart  I'roni  a  f\\v  solitary  voices,  the 
Swi-des  will  not  hear  of  actual  participation  on  the  pica 
that  the  interests  of  the  country  demand  action  on  one 
side  or  the  other. 

But,  however  strictly  we  may  adhen-  to  the  declaration 
of  our  Go\-ernmcnt  in  this  matter,  we  need  not  on  this 
^'round  consider  that  our  lips  arc  scaled  wjun  contemplating 
the  policies  of  the  waiiin^'  nations,  the  causi-s  which  pave 
rise  to  the  war,  and  the  acts  and  (hcds  committed  therein. 
Anyone  who  conscirnt iousjy  and  in  the  intensts  of  trutli 
and  justice  studies  the  c<turse  of  e\(  iits  nuist  he  entitled 
to  express  his  oj»inion,  ev(  n  if  such  expression  of  opinion 
involves  s(  \  (  le  critieisni.  If  this  were  n(»t  so.  siK  nee 
in  the  name  of  iKutrality  would  he  synonymous  with 
cowardiei  .  want  (tf  charact<  r.  or  indifference  :  it  mii,'ht 
;ji\-e  other  nations  entirely  untrue  conceptions  of  the  |»rc- 
N'ailin;,'  opinion  and  thus  cr<atc  distrust. 

Il"  j)copI<-  in  otlii  T  countrits.  and  pait  ieularly  those  at 
war.    are    int<r(st((l    in    leainin;,'    the    Sw<-dish    attitucic 
as  seems  to  lie  the  ease      it    may  tIierefor<-  scrsf  a  useful 
purjtosc  if  p(  Tsoiis  who  lia\e  made  a  conscientious  st\id\ 
of  the  World  coiitliet  expn  ss  their  \iews  thereon. 

More  than  e\er  Ik  fore  do  \\c  now  stand  in  the  ix cd 
of  utttrly  in<leji(  udent  historians  and  political  authors 
eapalde  of  olij.ctixe.  conseii  nl  loiis.  and  miimp.issi,  (lud 
eritieisiii,  alile  to  keep  their  own  leaniiiL's  in  cht ck  and  <lis- 
rei^aid  political  |iarfi(s  and  the  claims  of  diNcrse  nations 
^\ll<n  they  do  not  coincide  with  \\hal  is  riLrht.  It  is  on 
aceouiit  of  the  need  of  these  (p  lali  licat  ious  that  warlike 
coiiiplicat  ions  can  often  Ix  st  he  unra\(lled  hy  f)hscrvers 
l)elon;_'in<,'  to  a  ncntral  State. 

The  coiilusion  is  ^(  IK  ral  and  houndh  ss,  the  liiL'he^t 
moral  jinncijih  s  are  at   stake,  and  normal  de\ clopUK  iit    is 


Author's  Prefacf  xi 

arrested.  It  has  long  hccii  found  nt-ccssary  for  the 
advancement  of  science,  art,  industry,  conuuerce,  and 
morality  that  different  nations  should  cooperate  ther(  in, 
and  for  this  piu'pose  settled  international  relations  have 
been  established,  whilst  an  understanding  between  races 
and  nationalities  has  been  arrived  at.  All  this  is  now  as 
if  it  had  never  been.  The  World  War  has  almost  entirely 
destroyed  the  st-use  of  justice,  and  all  codes  of  right  and 
wrong  were  upset  when  brutal  force  became  the  dominant 
principle.  The  law  of  nations  no  longer  exists,  all  passions 
have  been  imchaincd,  hate  prevents  the  exercise  of  reason, 
nations  live  that  they  may  kill  and  j)lungc  one  another 
into  distress  and  misery,  the  foremost  inventions  deal  out 
death  and  destruction,  humaneness  is  a  mockery,  truth 
is  withheld  and  falsehcjod  organized,  the  futin-e  is  wrapt 
in  gloom,  the  brotherhood  of  nations  is  made  impossible, 
the  brute  in  us  is  brought  to  the  fore,  and  peace  will  be 
but  a  transient  truce  to  be  observed  until  the  nations,  with 
their  souls  black  with  hatred,  once  more  fly  at  each  other's 
throats. 

This  state  will  inevitably  follow  if  the  nations  arc 
not  called  to  their  senses  and  enlightened  on  the  real 
causes  of  ilic  World  War,  and  if  open  and  serious  criti- 
cism  is  not  brought  to  bear  on  the  faults  committed 
by  leading  statesmen  when  the  war  was  in  the  making. 
That  faults  of  the  gravest  kind  have  been  committed  is 
indisputable. 

To  endcavom-  to  unravel  the  causes  of  the  war,  in  order 
thereby  first  and  foremost  to  ]^repare  the  way  for  a  fresh 
understanding  between  the  nations  and  ]5revcnt  new 
motives  for  war,  has  to  me  become  a  necessity  which,  in 
common  with  others  eager  to  advance  the  cause  of  culture, 
I  feel  most  keenly.  We  have  been  tormented  long  enough 
— but  oh  !  how  little  eom]:)arcd  with  the  victims  of  the 
war-  we  wish  to  hear  no  more.  May  it  not  excite  surprise 
if  a  person  outside  the  orbit  of  events  and  politics,  after 
many  months  of  melancholy  depression  I  might  almost 
sav  of  cultural  torment — and  urged  on  bv  his  convictions. 


XII 


Aithoh's  Prepack 


studies,  aiul  iiR*tlitatioiis,  fitls  iniptlled  to  ojicn  his   heart 
on  the  .sul)jcct  of  the  fatelul  confhct. 

Ti>  uiuliTstaml  the  origin  of  this  wnv  it  is  necessary  to 
jjo  far  hack  into  tlie  past,  and  the  nion-  I  h:iM  im ditatcd 
upon  its  causes,  tlie  firmer  has  Ix-eonie  my  eoii\iction  that 
th(s(,-  are  wraj)t  uj)  primarily  witli  (iermany's  history  from 
the  tarhest  a;,'es  to  our  time,  and  j)artieuhuly  with  the 
appearance  of  Prussia  as  a  mihtary  State.  In  this  con- 
nexion it  Inconu  s  essential  to  incjuire  into  the  origin  of  the 
Dano-Cierman  War  of  1S(!1,  the  (iirman  War  of  lS«i(».  and 
the  I-'rancD-Ciernian  War  of  1S7(».  Hut  this  is  not  (•nou<,di  ; 
the  (k\'elopni(  nt  of  (i(  rmaiiism  sjiuc  the  l)(L;iniiin<,'  of  the 
nineteenth  century  must  also  he  ijone  into  in  orcUr  that 
the  inner  causation  of  iwnts  ma\'  he  revtahd.  Further- 
more, we  nnist  recall  the  ^'eiural  features  of  the  (ierman 
wars  of  tlie  seventeenth  century  and  of  the  Middle  A^us  ; 
nay,  we  must  carry  our  minds  !)ack  to  the  tirst  apjKaranee 
of  the  (i(  rmanic  raci-  in  antiepiity  and  the  ^uiat  mi^aat  ion  of 
nations. 

Whilst  for  more  than  fifty  years  hack.  (\(r  since  the 
Dano  (ierman  War  which  attiaeted  me  and  many  otln  r 
Swedish  volunteers  under  the-  Damsji  l)annt  is  I  have- 
Iteen  opjMiseel  to  the  politie-al  s\st(ni,  with  its  op|)rtssi()n 
and  militarism,  wjiie-ji  Hisniare-k  int  roelue-e  el  into  (iermany, 
I  ha\c  Tiever  slmt  iii\-  e\  «  s  to  (ie-rmaii\"s  cultural  ijre  atiiess 
aiiel  inllui  ne-e.  I''.\e  n  tliou;,'li  I  may  lia\e'  hee  n  still  me)re' 
deeply  impressed  l»\-  e-eitain  I'jijjlish  anel  l-'ii  ne-li  thinkers 
aiiej  politicians,  to  name-  hut  .J.  .Stuart  Mill,  (daelstoiu-, 
Diderot,  ('e)mt<-.  (iainlutta,  Jul' s  1"(  rry.  I  liaNc  always 
hit  admirat  ion  for  iiian\  r<  pr>  si  nt  at  i\  (  s  of  (ieinian  e-ult  un-. 
sueli  as  l-'riel(  riek  fli-  (H(at.  Kant,  (ioctlie.  and  many 
e)th<rs.  I  ii  ali/.<  to  til'  full  tli<  ;^i<  at  aelii<  \(  im  nts  «.f  tlir 
t  hinke  I  s  of  ( i(  rman\  and  ot  Im  r  ei\  ih/i  d  count  rii--.  .iiid  lia\  c 
net  cause  to  sielc  with  aii\  one  nat  |on  in  1  In-  lTi  at  st  riiLTu'lc. 
Hut.  for  th.it  matter,  IIm  n.ilinns  t  licins«  I\  c,  did  n..f  want 
tlic  war.  It  is  e|cp|(iral>l<  fliat  .il  the  \er\  tune  wIkii  old 
nation.al  antipathies  w .  i  c  on  IIm  \eru'e  ot  disappi  arm;,', 
mistrust  anel  hatred  should  lia\e-  come-  into  t  heir  ow  n      not 


Author's  Preface  xiii 

through  tlie  nations  themselves,  but  through  a  mistaken 
pohcy  dictated  by  a  few  individual  statesmen,  mostly 
actuated  by  chauvinistic  conceptions. 

The  French  philosopher  P.  Raylc,  in  his  celebrated 
work  Dictionnairc  historique  et  critique  (1007),  held  that 
a  historian  should  possess  the  following  qualifications  : 
"A  historian  who  would  faithfully  fulfil  his  function  must, 
in  so  far  as  stands  in  his  power,  transpose  his  mind  to 
the  attitude  of  a  stoic  who  is  not  infiucnccd  by  any  passion. 
He  must,  insensible  to  all  else,  think  of  naught  but  the 
interests  of  truth.  He  must  forget  that  he  belongs  to  a 
certain  country,  that  he  was  reared  in  a  certain  faith,  that 
he  has  this  or  that  individual  to  thank  for  his  worldly 
possessions,  and  that  this  or  that  person  is  his  relation  and 
his  friend.  If  he  be  asked,  '  Where  arc  you  from  ?  '  he 
nuist  answer,  '  /  am  neither  a  Frenchman,  nor  a  German, 
nor  an  Englishman,  nor  a  Spaniard,  etc.  ;  I  am  a  denizen 
of  the  ivorld.  I  am  in  the  service  of  neither  the  Emperor 
nor  the  French  king  ;  I  am  in  the  service  of  truth  alone.''  "  I 
have  identified  myself  with  these  reflections  of  Bayle's  in 
dealing  with  the  World  War  and  the  causes  which  led  up 
to  it. 

Whilst  engaged  in  scientific,  social,  and  political  studies 
I  have  during  the  past  half-century  often  and  for  long 
periods  visited  Germany,  England,  France,  and  other 
countries,  conversed  with  eminent  personalities,  made 
myself  familiar  with  current  opinions  and  customs,  and 
collected  pertinent  literature.  I  have  thus,  whilst  honestly 
seeking  the  truth  in  European  politics,  had  access  to  the 
channels  for  finding  it,  and  I  think  that  in  my  writings  on 
the  subject — General  History  of  Civilization,  Alsace-Lorraine, 
etc.— I  have  hitherto  always  manifested  my  earnest  desire 
to  be  impartial  and  objective. 

ANTON  NYSTROM, 

Stockholm,  March  1015. 


CONTENTS 


rA(.(. 

IXTIIODUCTION  V 

AUTHOR'S  PREFACH  ix 

I.  ON  WAR  AND  MILITARY  HISTORY  1 

II.  ON      RACIALISM,     ITS      SHORTCOMINGS      AND 

DANCiERS  7 

III.  THE  SLAVS  AND  THEIR  EARLH^R  DISTRIBU- 
TION :  THE  .MODERN  SLAVS  :  PAN-SLAVISM  : 
SLAV  CIVILIZATION  14 

IV.  GERMANY'S  ANCIENT  GERMANS  :  THEIR 
EARLY  DISTRIBUTION  AND  RAVA(;ES  :  THE 
GREAT    MI(;RATI0N    OF    NATIONS    AND    THE 

german  wars  of  the  middle  ages  :  the 
thirty  years  war  :  the  prussian  state 
and  the  partitions  of  poland  24 

v.  rise  and  significance  of  germanism  : 
(;ermanistic  dreams  of  (;ri<:atni<:ss  38 

vi.  prussia's    oppression    of    her    polish 

SUBJECTS  r,;5 

VH.  THE  DAN0-(;ERMAN  war  of  18(11.  :  BISMARCK'S 
MACIHAVELLISM  :  PRUSSIAN  OPPRESSION  IN 
SCHLESWIG  59 

VIII.   THE  GERMAN  FRATRICIDAL  WAR  OF  180(>  78 

IX.  THI-:  NEUTRALITY  OF  BELGIU:\I  AND  LUXEM- 
BURG 82 

X.  THE  FRAXCO-GERMAN  WAR  OF  1870  :  HOW  IT 

WAS  CAl'SED  BY  BISMARCK  8r, 

XL  AXXEXATION  OF  ALSACE-LORRAINE  TIIJ-: 
CAUSE  OF  THE  FRANCO-RUSSIAN  ALLIANCi: 
AND  THE  MONSTROUS  SPREAD  OF  MILITARISM 
IN  EUROPE,  AND  ONE  OF  THE  C.VUSES  OF  THi: 
WORLD  WAR  OF  1911  11. 'j 

\v 


xvi  Contents 

PACE 

XII.  THE  WOULD  WAR  OF  1911 

PART  I 

A.  Rtlations  LMtwtcn  Germany  and  Knplaiid  : 
fitrtimny's  Colonial  Policy  and  Ovcr-Population  one 
of  the  Causes  of  tlu-  War  T-'O 

PART  II 

A.  Inmu'diato  Causes  of  the  World  War  :  Turkty's 
Oppression  of  the  Halkan  Provinces,  Revolutionary 
Movements,  Russia's  Protection,  the  Russo-Turkish 
War  :  The  Herlin  Conjrress  of  1H78  :  Austria's  Aiuiexa- 
tion  of  Husiiia  and  IIir/eir<'vina  :  The  (ireat-Serhian 
Mov(  nient  :  The  Murder  of  th<-  Crown  Prince  Francis 
Ferdinand    :   Austria's   Note   to   S«rhia  150 

n.  The  S<  ritian  Conflict  and  the  Great  Powers  : 
Austria's  I )i  termination  to  Subdue  St  rhia  by  War  : 
The  Mrdiation  Proposals  of  Great  Rritain.  France, 
and  Russia  :  Austria's  ()j)j)osition  :  Why  did  Austria 
not  want  a  Conft  rtiice  ?  (Germany  Supj)orts  Austria  : 
\Var  Dtclarations  of  the  Powers  183 

C.  (Jerniany's  Violation  of  the  N«utralily  of 
R<  I^'ium  and  Luxemhurj:  :  (it  rmany  nt<:otiatts  with 
(ir»at  Rritain  :  Germany's  Hostile  Mtasnrts  against 
France  antl  Ht  1^'ium  :  Prott  sts  :  Declaration  of  War  : 
The  Di  ft  riders  of  the  Violation  of  Ni  ulrality  :  \N  hat 
drovf  Gnat  Rritain  into  Participation  in  the  \N  ar  : 
Synopsis  of  till-  (  aust  s  f.f  the  World  War  'JttU 

D.  fJermany's  Militarism  and  Prt  part  <ln«  ss  fdi- 
War  :  I',urf>pe"s  I-'ear  of  Ciermany  :  The  (it  rman  \'ii  w 
of  the  War   :  "We  have  ht  i  ii   Attacked  ;     (iirmany 

is  WaiiiiiL'  a  Def. usive  War    "  :  A  HyiiiKiti/td  Nation        '2Hi 

v..  'I  he  Harharilv  of  tli<  War  :  No  War  hetwren 
(  ivili/.ed  Natitiiis  has  »  \ii  1>.  <n  marked  hy  so  much 
(  rut  It y  anil  Savajji  r\'  'J<iT 

Xm.    I).\N(.I,H>  OI'  ()\  I;H   POPII.  ATION   :  WHAT  >1A- 

ri>i  i(  >  'n:A(  M  :  (.^.HM\N^  >  on  i.h  popci.a 

TION   A   (  ONs  r AN  r  .M1.NA(I.  K  )   I'l.A(i: 


XI\.    lOIXDAIIONs   (»|     |'1;A(  I.   AI'll.H     I  ill:    W  AH 
1X1)1  X 


it!» 


I 

ON  WAR  AND  MILITARY  HISTORY 

SOME  APHORISMS  WHICH  PROVIDE  FOOD  FOR  REFLECTION 

War  is  appropriate  only  in  primitive  stages  of  develop- 
nient,  or  when  civilized  States  have  to  deal  with  un- 
civilized peoples  disturbing  or  injuring  them  and  whose 
barbaric  acts  compel  war  in  the  name  of  civilization,  or  as 
a  means  of  defence  against  aggression. 

Amongst  civilized  nations  war  is  otherwise  devoid  of  all 
sense.  To  settle  disputes  between  them  by  murdering  and 
destroying — in  other  words,  by  exercising  brute  force 
when  justice  could  have  been  done  by  mediation  and 
arbitration,  is  a  mockery  of  culture  and  common  sense. 

It  is  in  truth  deplorable,  and  a  disgrace  to  civilization, 
that  the  fate  of  human  beings,  the  weal  or  woe  of  their 
country,  should  be  determined,  in  the  last  resort,  if  dis- 
putes arise  between  the  States,  by  violence  and  devasta- 
tion, victory  resting  with  the  side  in  possession  of  the  best 
— that  is  to  say,  the  most  devilish  — wea})ons  of  destruction. 
Well  may  we  endorse  the  sentiments  of  Gibbon  in  dis- 
cussing the  employment  of  gunpowder  :  "'If  we  contrast 
the  rapid  progress  of  this  mischievous  discovery  with  the 
slow  and  laborious  advances  of  reason,  science,  and  the  arts 
of  ])eace,  a  philosopher,  according  to  his  temj)er,  will 
laugh  or  weep  at  the  folly  of  mankind.*' 

Mature  reflection  must  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  war, 
like  most  phenomena  of  human  life  sickness  and  other 
human  suffering,  etc. — may,  as  a  rule,  be  aseril)ed  to  two 
kinds  of  causes  :    Causa'  proxima\  immediate,  more  or  less 

1  A 


2  Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

incidriital  faus«s,  and  aiu.sir  rttnotiv,  tl(Cj)t.T-lyint;  and 
ri-inotir,  jirrilisposiiij^  causes.  A  causa  pro.iinui  is  ottcn 
hut  an  uisujiulicant  nason  or  a  |)rtttxt  »»n  tlu-  part  of  a 
Statf  which  (Icsir,  s  war.  hut  wliich  (hxs  not  wish  to  a|)j)car 
to  he  the  a^'jjrt  ssjve  party  a  j)rovt>cation,  an  accusation  of 
N'iohited  national  honour,  an  election  of  a  ruh  r,  an  altered 
form  of  ^o\  criunt  lit.  t)r  int<rnal  disturhanct  s  in  a  ncij^h- 
l)ourinp  c<»untry,  <  ti-.  A  rausa  ntnola  is  (generally  of  a 
more  serious  kind  a  rrasonahle  fear  for  the  wi-lfarc  of 
tile  .State,  anxiety  for  its  coinnu  rc(  in  the  mark(  ts  of  the 
World,  f<  ar  of  undue  predouiinancc  or  hc^rcmony,  tjie 
suspicion  of  preparations  for  a  war  of  rev«iii:e  and  plans  for 
retakint;  coii(|u<ri(l  pro\  inces,  the  m-ed  of  new  pro\inces 
or  possf  ssi(  .lis  in  distant  p.-irts  of  the  world  lor  the  exi- 
j.'i  n(i(  s  of  a  L'ro\",  m^'  po])ulat  ion.  etc.  The  predisjiosinu  and 
real  calls,  s  are  tVccpK  lit  Iv  conc(  ;ilcd,  and  the  arts  of  dip- 
lomacy thus  olt(  II  s(  (  k  hy  ]>r(  texts,  such  as  the  hrin^int,' 
forward  of  an  incidental  r<  asoii  niohili/at  ion.  etc.  to 
make  if  appear  as  if  a  .State  which  cli  ally  has  hi  (  n  the 
iiLfLT'  s-or  w  (  r-    in  i"<  aHt\   the  assaili  d  |tart\". 

The  olij.ets  1,1  war  ami  the  (pi'sfiou  ot  how  war  should 
)>'■  (ondiicffd  in  oui-  era  h\  ei\  ili/.i  d  nation^  are  matters 
which  ha\  c  In  (11  sf  t  loith  li\-  all  aiithonti<s  nn  inter- 
national law.  In  I), IS  i],nnju!is,  h,  I' <i!Lt  n;  rht.  hy  11.  Ift'  r, 
(iL'hth  fdition.  pri  pai'd  1)\-  (,.ffek<n  (Inns).  \\c  read  for 
iii-tan<c:  ■■{'i\ili/id  nations  rt  co^'ni/i  in  war  hut  an 
<  .\t  r.  iiiit  \',  an  inc\itahlc  e\  il  \vhieli  must  not  he  cani(d 
ImtliM'  than  the  III  I  ( .s.^iti/  ill  imnnls.  Ilincc  its  hiirln'st 
j-iiiicipl..  hallowid  a-  much  h\  r-a^on  and  li\"  lo\c  of 
hiim.init\  .IS  \>\  -'  It  lilt.  r<  >t.  is  :  I  )o  \(iur  .  n.  m\.  .  \i  n  in 
War,    ;,'.    //m.//    hi.ini    tinni    i ->    im,,;  ',ii!>ih!i    l.ir   tip     at  t  :i  mn  n  nt 

oi   th.    (.iiri :     \'.hil^t   the  ,,1,1  .■,d<-  of  \.,,r,  on  th.    ..th.  r 

liai:d,  loll., 'A.. I  t;,.  pnncipl.  :  1 ).  >  \.Mir  iii.iii\-  a-  iinich 
harm  .  t  -  \o;i  ..ui  .ind  Ind  u  'tul.  Th'  <thi.s  ot'  war 
pr<  s(  ril"  tl'  p.  rmi  iM.  m- aiis  ;ind  the  utmo  t  limit.; 
t  h'  \  to:  1,H  I.  and  t  hi-  at '  n  with  tin  ciil^c  .  .f  hi  >t  oi  \  .  i  nh  li- 
ma m  t  \     a  h '  I    I  > :  1 1  I  M  I' '    I  M  .  ■  ■ 

I   nloit:.;,.,!.  1\    til-    I  ,    .till    hut    a    th.  or\,    f..r   t  h.     WoiM 


On  War  and  Military  History  .3 

War  which  bcpfan  in  lUll  has  j)rovcd  Ixjth  inhuman  and 
barbarous,  and  often  certain  belligerents  have  endeavoin-ed 
to  harm  the  enemy  as  nuieh  as  j)ussil)le  and  used  pro- 
scribed methods. 

Frederick  the  (ireat,  himself  an  eminent  warrior,  said 
that  "  the  world  would  be  happy  if  there  were  no  other 
means  tlian  ncgoliation  to  maintain  justice  and  restore 
peace  and  harmony  among  the  nations.  The  force  of 
reason,  not  of  amis,  should  l)e  employed.  Yet  a  sad 
necessity  impels  princes  to  resort  to  cruel  means,  and  there 
are  occasions  when  one  must  defend  by  the  force  of  arms 
the  freedom  of  a  people  threatened  with  the  oppressi(jn 
of  injustice,  or  when  princes  must  submit  the  fate  of 
their  people  to  the  test  of  battle.  It  is  the  purpose  of  a 
war  which  makes  it  just  or  unjust.  The  passions  and 
ambition  of  princes  often  distort  their  vision  and  paint 
the  most  violent  acts  in  pleasing  colours.  War  is 
an  extreme  measure,  and  therefore  it  should  only  be 
resorted  to  after  deliberation,  in  desperate  emergencies, 
and  after  weighing  carefully  whether  one  })e  driven  to  it 
by  the  illusion  of  pride  or  by  serious  and  e(jinp(Hing 
reasons. 

"  War,  as  a  rule,  is  so  full  of  misery,  the  issue  is  so 
uncertain,  and  the  consequences  are  so  ruinous  to  a 
country,  that  princes  cannot  too  deeply  reflect  ])efore 
})lunging  into  it.  I  am  convinced  that  if  the  minds  of 
kings  could  conceive  a  true  and  faithful  picture  of  the 
misery  which  a  single  declaration  of  war  brings  upon  their 
people,  they  would  not  be  insensible.  But  their  imaoina- 
tion  is  not  vivid  enough  to  give  them  a  real  picture  of 
sufferings  which  they  do  not  feel,  and  from  which  tlieir 
position  shields  them.  How  are  they  to  imderstand  these 
burdens  whicli  oppress  the  peo})le  ?  The  jn-i  vat  ions 
which  the  country's  young  recruits  must  undergo  ?  The 
contagious  pestilences  which  ravage  their  armies  ?  The 
horrors  of  battle  and  the  still  more  murderous  sieges  ? 
The  despair  of  the  wounded  who  have  lost  a  limb  ?  The 
distress  of  the  fatherless  who  have  lost  their  sole  suj~)porter  ? 


4  Bkforf:,  DiRiNc;,  and  After  1014 

Tlif  1<»N  <»1  N<»  lu.iiiy  nun  nsi  lul  to  Uic  State.  \vlu)ni  tit-atli 
gatlu  rs  all  too  s(M»n  ".'  "' 

On  tli(  whole.  Frederick  foniul  mjin  dospic-ahle  ;  he  once 
remarked  to  the  i)hiI<;soj)her,  Professor  Sul/.er  of  Berhii  : 
"  Vow  do  not  understand  sutliciently  this  aeeursed  race  to 
which  We  Ixlon;^." 

Frederick  the  (in at  helon^ed  to  the  r»inarkal)le  j^rovip  of 
authors  who  in  the  ei^diteenth  century  represented  the 
f)hjeeti\e  and  praj,Mnatic  sdiool  of  historians.  He  wrote, 
win  II  he  was  still  Crown  Prince,  his  famous  r.tnlinuichiavtL 
and  puhlisjud  later  Thr  Ilistori/  of  inij  Time  and  Tin- 
Ilistnrii  nf  I  fit-  Srvcn  Yxirs  II  ar,  etc..  and  all  these  WDrks 
denote  a  char  understanding'  of  the  causes  of  events,  a  rare 
impartiality  in  jud^iiiLr  his  own  acts,  and  a  philosophic 
trtiid  of  thoUL'ht.  He  considtred  m<>st  historical  works  to 
he  ■•  lies,  adorned  hy  a  fi  w  truths  '  :  that  the  j)rejudices 
of  autliors,  tin  ir  Mind  partiality  for  the  country  of  their 
hirth  and  tluir  hatrid  of  foniLTU  nations,  so  distorted 
facts  ;ind  (\(iits  that  it  was  liardK'  possiMc  ti»  |)eiutratc 
t  he  \<  il  \s  hieh  CI  '\  crtd  t  li<  m. 

I  shall,"  he  wrote.  ■■  dare  to  utt(  r  outright  and  aloud 
what  is  otherwise  sihnfK  adinittid.  I  shall  d' scrihe 
J. liners  sueli  as  the\  ;ire,  without  Mas  in  fa\i>\n"  of  those 
who  are  mv  .illies  and  without  hatnd  of  those  who  are  my 
en-  lilies.  One  inusf."  he  continutd.  '"  li<-  impai'tiai.  wiite 
with  (lisciininiat  ion,  and  r(  Iv  on  nom-  hut  fully  r<  liaMe 
(  \  id<  nee  :  truthful  p<rsons,  authentic  documents,  con- 
(•'•rdant   n  |,(,rts  from  different  sources,"'  etc. 

Thi  I'liiieli  writ«i-  \j.  Hourdiau.  in  his  work  (utifled 
Lhl-I'iiri  1 1  lis  hishnii  >is  (isss),  prononneed  up^n 
lii-tcijcal  wntinijs  a  le.Trned  and  valuaMe  eiitieisni.  and 
indieat'il  the  (pialitiis  which  the  liistMnaii  should  posstss. 
n<  nIicwn.  ;tnionu  other  tluiiL"^.  h'lW  peisciial  int.  r.  st  s  and 
pass),, lis,  diff'  I'l  nt  political  s\sfiiiis  and  paitiis  have 
a!  w  a\  s  «  \i  1 1 1  d  t  h<  most  d(  1<  t  rri'  Mis  inllui  ne<  <  .n  hisf  oneal 
I'<o[(U,  which  thus  ha\<-  often  hreipinc  pos|fi\(  lalsitica 
ti-n^. 

I'tutli  has,"  he  sa\s.  '"  no  ijivati  |-  enem\    than  passi.in  ; 


On  War  and  Military  History  5 

wherever  passion  appears  there  is  ground  lor  (Uslrust. 
The  study  of  seience  demands  complete  detachment 
from  personal  interest.  The  only  passion  for  whieh  there 
is  room  in  such  study  is  the  wish  U)  find  and  utter  the  truth, 
whatever  it  may  he.  Therelore  history  needs  to  enlist 
minds  whieh  are  free  from  extraneous  ties,  for  one  cannot 
serve  two  masters  at  a  time."  But  this  ideal  is  very 
diflieult  of  attainment,  and  Bourdeau  says  outri^dit 
that  "  entire  impartiality,  which  can  readily  he  found 
in  those  who  study  the  abstract  sciences,  is  impracti- 
cable in  history,  a  concrete  science,  in  which  the  acts  of 
men,  the  work  of  passion,  are  observed  and  rendered 
with  passion." 

Patriotism,  despite  its  virtues,  has  a  certain  tendency  on 
some  minds  to  create  and  aggravate  prejudices,  so  that  it 
becomes  Chauvinism,  or  the  notion  that  one's  own  country 
must  be  superior  to  all  others.  Especially  in  wartime  this 
national  feeling  becomes  exacerbated,  and  under  its  in- 
fluences some  writers,  historians,  and  politicians  transgress 
all  bounds  in  their  accounts  of  their  own  country's  ex- 
eellence  and  the  enemy's  inferiority,  the  justice  of  their 
country's  cause  in  making  war  and  the  deplorable  injustice 
of  the  enemy's.  Under  this  influence  they  do  not  stop  at 
distortions  of  facts,  nay,  actual  lies,  partly  to  appear  in  a 
favoiu'able  light  to  foreign  countries,  and  partly  to  stimulate 
patriotism  in  their  own  countrymen  and  spur  them  to 
devoted  defence  against  the  enemy.  Facts  are  given  an 
entirely  different  comjilcxion  in  the  different  countries  to 
attain  this  object,  and  truth  is  thrown  to  the  winds  ;  it 
j^raetically  ceases  to  have  anything  to  do  with  the  argu- 
ment, the  only  vital  point  l)cing  to  discredit  the  opponent 
and  to  give  those  in  authority,  who  helped  to  bring  about 
the  war,  the  blindest  support  and  thus  secure  tlic  co- 
operation of  the  people. 

We  cannot  but  deplore  with  Bourdcau  the  difficulty  with 
which  the  historian  is  confronted  in  endeavouring  to 
reconcile  patriotism  with  truth.  ''  The  more  they  love 
their  country  the  less  can  one  rely  on  their  impartiality. 


6  Before,  Diking,  and  Aiteh  1911 

Has  one  nut  pootl  nasun  for  serious  inis^nviiips  when  one 
c<»n*<icl»  rs  that  int>st  histories  are  tht"  ^V()rk  of  ardent 
patriots  ?  "' 

Of  the  learn<(i  Florentine  Po^'jjio  (d.  ll.j'J)  it  was  said, 
when  hi-  liatl  written  Tin  Ilisluri/  of  Flnnncf  :  "  Gootl 
patriot,  l)ad  historian."' 


II 

ON  RACIALISM,  ITS  SHORTCOMINGS  AND 
DANGERS 

Vast  and  far-rcacliing  inovcnicnts  have  in  recent  times 
arisen  around  the  su])ject  of  raciahsm,  movements  which  in 
reahty  denote  a  tendency  in  international  jjohties  inimical 
to  civilization.  The  terms  Germanism,  Latinism,  and 
Slavism  have  come  to  be  used  as  political  constructions 
designatin^T  rival  and  hostile  racial  groups,  and  this  in  an 
era  when  the  nations  should  instead  have  realized  the  need 
for  pacific  mutual  relations  and  enlightened  under- 
standing. 

How  meaningless  the  race  question  is  in  Europe  from 
a  scientific  point  of  view  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  all  the 
races  of  which  the  European  nations  consist  are  in  reality 
clost'h/  related  to  one  another,  i.e.  sister  races  Ijclonging  to 
the  Indo-European  family,  albeit  with  an  admixture  of 
earlier,  prehistoric  races,  and  in  certain  localities  of 
Turanian,  and  more  especially  Finnish,  elements. 

Certain  writers  in  Germany  have,  however,  become 
scientific  agitators  ;  they  have  enlisted  themselves  in  the 
service  of  national  egoism  or  chauvinism  and  sought  to 
fiu*nish  evidence  of  the  superiority  of  the  Germanic  over 
the  Latin  or  Slav  races. 

The  Germans  long  thought  that  a  certain  formation  of 
the  skidl  was  characteristic  of  them  all.  that  tluy  were 
dolichocephalic,  or  long-skulled,  in  contrast  to  the  French, 
w^ho  were  normally  braehyeephalie.  or  short-skulled.  Ex- 
haustive investigation  has  shown,  however,  that  in  many 

7 


8  Before,  DiRiNt;,  and  Ai-ter  101 1 

(ierman  countries,  as.  fur  instance.  IIcssc.  Swahia.  and 
Havaria,  tl>c  sliapc  <>f  the  cranium  is  hrachyccphalic  as  in 
France,  ami  that  the  n»«>st  typical  (it  rnian  skull,  the 
Teutonic,  varies  nnieh  in  shaj)e  and  may  he  either  dolicho- 
cephalic. mesocej)halic,  or  hrachyi-ephalic. 

Anatomically,  therefore,  the  (ierman  racial  tlu<»ry  is 
false,  and  if  \sv  look  hack  into  history  we  find  that  the 
French.  <ven  if  of  Latin  orii^'in,  hy  n<t  means  lack  (iermanic 
elements,  h.r  th(    IVanks  and  the  Normans  were  (iernianic 

p(  <>pl(  s. 

If  this  racial  theory  were  true,  the  elemental  j)rincij)le 
of  the  law  of  nations  would  he  false;  the  law  of  nations 
Would  then  h<-  a  nu  re  coHcetion  of  declamatory  rules  and 
j)hrases  luiively  strung'  to;,'rth<r.  Why  resp( ct  a  nation 
which  with  an  assinm  <1  seit  ntitic  riu'lit  one  has  already  eon- 
drmn<  (1  to  diat  h  t  o  s(  i\  c  t  he  ends  ot'a  j)olie_\  of  hiute  force  ? 
H<  sid<  s.  of  lafr,  (  \<  n  in  (it  rmaiiy  voie<  s  lia\"e  ht  t n  raisi d 
whkh  d«  iioun<  (    this  racial  tin  oiy. 

l-'riedrieh    Ilert/,    OIK     of    the    shr(  wdrst     stuthnts    of   the 

raet-  (jU'stioii  HI  recent  times,  ol>str\(s  in  his  ;;reat  work 
Mn<l,  nif  h'li^s,  ntlii  "titu  (  I  '.Hil )  :  "■  Hot  li  tin  iiiaL.'iiit  ude  and 
th«-  jH  rmanene<-  of  the  raer  laetois  lia\<  l»i<n  «  \ai,VL'<  i':it  ed 
III  an  iiierrdiltlrd(Mfrcc  .and  t  li<  ir  role  in  historical  tx  posit  ion 
iiiu^t  lie  rr^f.irdi  d  as  s(  (•diidarw  Ih-  also  pouits  out  thai 
the  )jr<a1cst  aut  hoiit  i(  s  on  anthropology  disji.nau'e  tin' 
lu-^torical  si^nitic.iiicc  of  "  iioMc  "  and  "iLUioMc"  laci  s. 
'riiu>  Kolliuann  writfs:  "All  Fur<i|)can  races,  in  so  tar 
a>  wr  lia\i-  hitherto  pi  nctiatid  into  the  m\sf(  rics  of  race. 
ar<  c(jually  conipitrnt  to  ;;iapi>Ic  with  an\'  ei\  ili/.at  ory 
task. 

■■'Jli>  iac<  tlici.r\  in  tli<  traditional  s.iis(.'"  sa\  ^  Ihrl/., 
iiia\  in  our  tunc  more  ri;,'htl\-  In  callid  a  pla\  l!I  ""IkI  tor 
poht  niaii  >  .■■.id  dilettanti  than  a  spin  !(  loi-  c\act  in\(sti 
V'af''!-.  Ill  it/,  (iiclar<N  fh.it  ijothuii.'  Is  iiiori  f.iN(  than 
fli'  \  I'  w  tli.it  n.it  lon.il  coiisciousiK  ss  uiiplii  s  r.icc  and  t  hat 
tl.'  i.ic.  tliioiA  siipplh  s  till  I'undaini  nt  .il  i\  pl.ni.it  lou  of 
n.it  !■ 'I'.!]  t '  lidi  iicH  s.  "  'i'hcji  Is  no  piincijili  inon-  piii\ii 
c.iti\i    111   ho. t  lilt  \    t  hail   t  hat    o|   i  aci    and   ii.it  lon.ilit  \  .      'i'lic 


Racialism  :   Shortcomings  and  Dangers     9 

race  theory  teaches  contempt  for  tlie  foreign  race,  its  hopeless 
inferiority,  the  danger  of  its  intermixture  witfi  the  '  noble  ' 
race.  All  nations  are  composed  of  the  most  varied  races, 
and  we  see,  in  point  of  fact,  that  those  very  nations  wiiich 
are  made  up  of  the  most  varied  elements  stand  highest  in 
the  civilized  world." 

What  little  imj)ortance  must  be  attached  to  the  shape  of 
the  skull  in  determining  the  race  I  hav^e  shown  in  my  work 
on  The  Origin  of  Brack yccphali  and  Dolichnccphali  (U)().'J),* 
in  which  I  pointed  out  that  both  long  and  short  skulls  as 
well  as  intermediate  variations,  are  to  be  found  amongst 
most  races  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  and  that  the 
shape  of  the  skull  is  not  an  invariable  mark  of  race,  but 
varies  according  to  cultural  influences,  the  carriage  of  the 
body,  etc.,  and  that  one  and  the  same  peojile  may  in  earlier 
stages  be  mainly  composed  of  dolichocephali,  but  later  largely 
of  brachyccphali.  I  have  also  found  by  examination  of  the 
heads  of  500  living  Swedes  that  the  brachyccphali  arc 
more  numerous  among  the  upper  classes,  but  that  among 
the  peasantry  the  dolichocephali  predominate. 

Eminent  anthropologists  have  accepted  my  proofs  as 
conclusive,  and  my  craniological  theory  seems  to  have 
been  generally  adopted. 

Apart  from  theoretical  research,  my  investigations  have 
served  one  positive  pm-pose  :  they  must  tend  to  counteract 
race  hatred  and  chauvinism,  inasmuch  as  the  theory  of 
distinct  racial  characteristics  has  led  some  writers  to  pro- 
claim that  the  dolichocephalic  nations  in  Europe  were 
superior  to  the  brachycephalie,  and  therefore  destined  to 
rule  and  to  conquer. 

As  a  rule,  accuracy  has  not  been  a  feature  of  the  attemjits 
to  fix  the  nationality  of  the  different  peoples  ;  in  fact,  there 
has  been  a  tendency  to  let  the  ruling  clctnrnt,  the  hnignagr, 
etc.,  determine  the  nationality  of  the  people.  Thus  the 
French   have   been  classed  as   of  '"  Latin,"  the  Germans 

*  First  published  in  Ranke's  Arcliiv  fur  Anthropologic.  1901, 
under  tlio  title  Ucbcr  die  Fortnvcrdtidcruiigcii  dcs  mcnscldicficu 
Schddels. 


10         Befoke,  Diking,  and  Ai^ter  1914 

of  "  Ci«rinai»ic-,'"  aiul  tlu-  Russians  of  "  Slav  "  orij^in, 
ultliout'h  all  thrsi-  jH-oj)Ks  arc  of  Ncry  mixed  origin.  It 
is  (juitc  iiisutlicit  lit.  in  (Kcidiii;,'  the  (jucstion  of  nation- 
ality, to  know  that  a  certain  stock  has  during'  Ion;,'  ii^'^"> 
nilcii  in  a  certain  area  or  occupied  a  coiuitry.  It  is 
nei''ssary  to  know  in  what  measure  it  has  cxpcUeii,  or 
cxtirj)at«-d,  or  ahsMihcd,  an  i  arliir  population  of  the  area 
whi  re  it  has  hreonic  the  ruliii::  element. 

.Mthou::h  in  rare  instance  s  the  inhal)itants  of  a  compured 
rountr\  ha\ «  h(  <n  exterminated,  if  they  were  nlativcly 
f<  \\ ,  th(  r<  i^  no  douht  that  in  most  cases  where  a  forei;;n 
pt ' >j>lt  has  (•.  intjurrcd  a  v >\iu\  ry,  t  he  ^^'reater  part  of  the  old 
mhahitanfs  at  all  (\«nts.  the  Nvornen  and  children  have 
lt\  no  iiiraus  |)(  rn  exterminated,  l»ut  ha\'e  remained  as 
s.  rfs  or  r<  taiu'  d  ei  rtain  lihertics  and  |iri\  ih  ;j(s.  In  time  a 
fu^i'-n  I  .f  t  li>   niliiii/  with  t  he  con<pieri(l  pi  o|.lr  has  as  a  rule 

t;ikeii  plae<-.  til'-  lattir  element  ha\in^.'  often  Ik  <  II  |>r(  - 
d-'inniaiit  and  thus  <  t  hnoL'ra] 'hieally  dttermined  the 
nationality  in  a  laiL'-r  measure-  than  the  lornier.  althou;,'h 
i^eiii  ralK  the  rulniL'  e|.  nient  has  >.'i\<n  its  name  to  the 
nat  \>  -n  a!  ter  t  he  e.  iM<)Uest . 

No\\h'  re  in  Murop.-  i^  their  a  nation  of  unmixed  rae-e  ; 
'  \'  ii  whei-.  piihtieaj  ami  social  units  e  xists  and  s(  eins  e-om- 
p!' t' ,  th'  nation  is  eonipos.d  of  s(  \ ,  ral  rae-ial  elein.iits. 
The  I-'i'  iieli  nation,  wjueh  si  mis  so  homo^i  neons,  is  tin's 
mad'-  u;>  'if  jirehi^toiie  unknown  rae-e^.  C'llts,  Homans, 
(i'Miiiiis      111    fh'     Mi'MIe    A'jes   e'alliel    Hietons      Normans 

^Seandl!i.i\  ialis  1,   (.aseoiis,    l'io\  i  ni-;ils,   etc..   who   ha\e-   he'ili 

fii  I  d  t.  ■:."  t !..  (-,  i.  :_'aid  t  lnnisi  I\i  s  all  as  l-'iine|imen.  anel 
spiak  fh'  saiii'  laiiL'uaL'e.  althoU;.'li  eirtain  pro\  me.  n  |ia\e 
t  li'  ir  <>\\  n   dlali  el  s. 

'I'll'    Ivi^'Iish  and  the  .Seoteh   also   foini  a  fairK    liomo^e 
ii'  "11  •  n.it  !■  Ml.  I.I  it   eoinpiisi    man\    diff'  riiif    laeial  i  h  imnt  s 
d'    "  U'l- 'I  from  til.   (■'  If    .  (,.  rmaii^.  I  fe.      t  Ii-m    ( .a-N,  l»iet  s, 
S'  •  -t  -,  Anu'i'  -.  Sa\'  'lis,  and  S(-andiiia\  laiis  who  in  flu    MiiMli- 
\;''  .  e.  'if .  nd'  'I  !■  ■!   t !).    ma   1 1  i\   "t'  t  he  eoiint  r\  . 

1  !.'  <  ••  I  inafi  iiat  !■  'ii  is  mad.  up  of  ( '.  If  s,  ( iiinians,  and 
.*^!.i-.    ,  h-    I'l'  .  unknown  prehi-forie-  lae-es.      Paii^'ermanisnj 


Racialism:    Shortcomings  and  Dangers    11 

should  therefore,  if  it  were  consistent,  expel  the  Celtic 
elements  in  South  Germany  and  the  Slav  elements  in  North 
Germany     for  example,  the  Prussians  ! 

The  Italian  nation  consists  of  Celtic  and  Germanic  ele- 
ments and  the  descendants  of  the  old  Romans,  who  them- 
selves were  a  mixture  of  earlier  Italian,  Etruscan,  and 
other  peoples. 

The  Danish  people  is  also  very  mixed,  though  distin- 
guished by  strong  national  unity  and  feeling  ;  yet  it  is  com- 
posed of  Celtic,  old  Germanic  as  well  as  modern  German 
elements,  Slavs,  etc. 

The  Swedish  nation  issued  originally  from  a  mixture  of 
unknown  prehistoric  peoples  with  Celts  and  Gernums,  who 
at  an  early  stage  became  the  ruling  stock,  IJut  throughout 
the  historical  era,  until  our  time,  foreign  racial  elements 
have  been  absorbed  into  it.  I  have  found  by  inquiry 
into  the  descent  of  500  living  Swedes  tluit  07,  or  14.4'  {)er 
cent.,  had  foreign  blood ;  nearly  half  of  these  had  (ierman 
blood,  and  next  in  order  came  those  with  Scottish, 
Frankish,  and  Walloon  blood  in  their  veins.* 

In  Russia  it  has  long  been  generally  held  that  tlie  German 
is  the  cneinij.  The  Russian  General  Skobeleff,  in  1882, 
gave  vent  to  the  following  utterance  to  Slav  students  in 
Paris  :  *'  In  our  country  the  stranger  has  penetrated 
everywhere  -we  have  become  the  victims  of  liis  intrigues, 
enslaved  by  his  power.  The  German  is  that  stranger  ! 
The  Cicrman  is  the  enemy  !  The  struggle  between  Slavs 
and  Teutons  is  inevitable  !  " 

In  Gernuuiy,  on  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  contended 
that  Russia  has  much  to  thank  Germany  for  on  account 
of  the  vast  immigration  from  that  country,  that  most 
industrial  establishments  in  Russia  owe  their  existence  to 
German  initiative,  that  even  the  leading  positions  in  the 
country's  Government  and  Army  have  been  entrusted  to 

*  The  aulhor.  for  instance,  is  descended  fmni  very  ancient 
Swedish  stock  on  his  father's  as  well  as  his  mother's  side;  but 
on  l)oth  sides  he  h;;s  inherited  Scottish.  C.eini'.n.  and  I'rankish 
blood. 


12  Hefokk,  Diking,  and  Aftkr  lOl-l- 

individuals  of  (iiniian  dtNCriit,  alboit    tluy  Uavv  since  \n- 
coint-  Itiissians. 

Hacial  hatred  prr  sr,  or  tlu-  liutrrd  Ixtwt  ni  races  us  such, 
witliout  u  political  hackgrouiul,  without  antaLjouisuis 
iM-twccu  the  Stat<  s.  is  in  civiIi/.<  d  countries  an  anomaly,  a 
folly,  the  she*  rest  madness.  It  is  in  reality  an  artiticially 
fostered  stiitinu  lit,  often  fo undid  on  i^uiorance  or  on  (lis- 
t(»rted  history  under  the  intluence  of  warlike  ha|)|)eninu's 
or  exa;;j;i  rat«(l  nationalism     that  is  to  say,  chauvinism. 

It  is  not  racial  anta^jonism  that  hrouj^'ht  about  the 
j;r<at  war  of  I '.•11.  It  is  State  rearing  itself  uj^'ainst  State. 
It  is  not  only  .SIa\s  who  are  tiu'htin^'  in  the  East  a;.jainst 
Teutons,  and  T<  utons  who  aif  liu'htin;,'  against  Sla\s.  for 
till  r<-  is  no  lack  ot  .S!a\  s  in  the  (ierman  and  Austrian 
armiis,  and  in  t  he  West  we  s(  (  t  Ik-  (iermanic  .State  of  (Jii  at 
Hrit.ain  fiuhtint,'  against  th<-  (h  rniaiis  ot'  (iermanv. 

Haeial  hat  nd  <  \ists.  howiver,  as  a  hack^U'otmd  to  the 
war  *<(  that  tli<  r«-  can  he  no  d^uht  and  is  not  dillieult 
to  uiuhrstand.  sci mi/  that  th<-  (Jerniaiis  ha\c  sincr  the 
Middl'  .\i:<  >  a<tually  ou^ttd  the  .Sla\  s  fiom  Central  Murope 
.111(1  eclHjiirrtd  s(\(ial  .Sl;i\  <  iliie  c  MUit  lies.  (irriiiau  p<tli- 
f  leians.  iii"ri  I  .\  (  r,  m  \  (  r  t  uc  <  if  point  uil'  "Ut  t  hat  aiuoni,'  t  he 
.*sla\  s  t  ht    haf  red  of  ( ^  rmaiiy  is  m  tin    ltIo(.d. 

In  IJussia  tliii"-  Is  iiioff  th.ui  a  t(iid<iie\  to  ret,'ai'd  th- 
NN'-rld  War  .is  a  sf  iiil,'l'I"  of  .Sla\  ism  .-i^faiiist  (iiniianisni, 
.and  111  (i'-rmany  if  has  Im  » n  (hcl.ind  to  he  the  stniLTijIe  of 
(i<  rniaiiism  against  .S!a\isiii. 

.\<c(.i(|iiiL'  to  the  (••riiian  White  Honk,  the  Imperial 
(  haiie<  ll"r,  Hefhiiiaiiii  IIoHwi^',  d. cl.iii  d  at  flie  Ik  ^imiiii^' 
•■1  til'-  \vai-  :  ■■  The  siilijiiL'.i' i"M  <>\  all  Sl.i\s  iiiMJer  t  he 
|{u-  i.iii  .(  epf  re  t  hroiiL'h  Ausf  ria's  ec  unjil'  I  e  d.  ,\\  ntall  W'uld 
inak'  the  p"siti"ii  i>\  the  (h  rmaiiie  race  in  l-jii.ip.  imt.  n 
•  il'!'.  'I'll'  III.  in-  (iirmaiiN  cMild  ii'it  do  otli.rwi..  than 
;.M\'-    \i;tna  li-  v     iippoit    in  tli'    .Seil.iaii  ("iilliet  . 

I)i.  >.  ll'iliii,  al't-r  his  return  h'liiie  trom  th.  lV,,nt  iin 
ti'  Ihrjius  .\i/l'ifir  lilt  I  r\  I'  \s  ',  lai<l  d"\\ii  tli'  lo|l,,\\ni;_. 
di'  t  iMii  :     "It     I  .    t  h'     II  se    of   ( i'  nnaiiisni    in    t  Im     'juis.     .  ,|' 

(.•MlialiN      ulil'h     l.l'.lli.'llt      the     AIJK  s     t'-L-'th-r.         il'Iie.-     til'' 


Racialism:    Shortcomings  and  Dangers     i;i 

Germans'  intense  resentment  against  Great  Uritain,  as 
tliey  regard  her  partieipation  in  tlie  war  as  raeial  treason. 
This  makes  our  resp()nsil)ility  all  the  greater.  We  have 
the  purest  Mood  of  all  (iermanie  j)e()ples  ;  this  carries 
its  duties  with  it." 

The  tension  between  Russia  and  (iermany,  which,  on 
the  outbreak  of  war,  manifested  itself  onec;  more  l)y 
its  appeal  to  racial  animosities,  demands  a  closer  eluci- 
dation of  the  position  and  ethnographical  conditions  of 
Slavs  and  Germans. 


Ill 

TIIKSLAVSAM)  THKIH  KARLIKU  DISTUIHITION  : 

Tin:  MODKUN  SLAWS  :  PAX-SLAVISM  :  SLAV 

IIVILIZATION 

Tiii.  (urK'  (liffu-^iun  ••!'  thr  Slavs  in  I\ur()j)c,  al)(>ul  which 
hitlnrto  iii't  (iH'ti^'h  lias  ht «  M  known,  was  ori/^'inally  far 
L'liati  r  than  is  <,'i  ik  rall\"  crcihtcth  This  is  cK  arly  sliown 
l)\  a  It  inarkahlc  wnk  puhhshid  by  tin-  Acadi my  of 
>(•!.  n<-<  s  at  t  racou,  I'rom  th<-  jhii  ol'a  I'ohsli  sa\ant,  Dr.  \V. 
1\<  tr/.\  n-ki,  'J'hf  Kii.^l  Jiiii  iii.^h  .SUii.s  {()  Sluuidinu  h  niii^rJid- 
i<ii  i/<h  tiii^di/s  iiiidhi/  TtUtiii,  a  Laha,  Sahi  i  C  Zt  ska,  (iranicu, 
1  s'.t'.'). 

Th'  (iirniaiii-t  Miilh  nhoff  liad  ahratU  pointtd  out  that 
all  t  h'  ol<l  iiaiii<  s  <,1  liicahtKs  hrtwtcn  t  h(  Hhuic  and  tlic 
I'.ih'  .i!«  n"t  (ii  riiian  and  that  tlic  (.<  rniaiis  were  not  the 
ori;,'inal  ndialutaiit  s  (,|  t  hos(  locaht  irs,  hut  nut,'rat(d  t  hit  hi  r 
.t--  (  '.nqui  I"!-..  Ih  <•'  Wit  rnd<  <1  t  hat  t  he  (  ai  Ik  r  inliahit  ant  s 
had  h' <  ri  (-Its;  hut  now  !\' 1 1/.\  ii^  ki  shnws  that  these 
oiieih.i!  iiih.ihit  aiit '.  \\i  re  .Shi\  s,  Iwr  the  nauM  s  r<  cui-  in  tlie 

I'le    I  lit    (!;i\     >la\     (■■•untnes.        I|,      hases    his    e;i^(      < 'U    IiaUKs 

\\huii  <\'n  (.uiiu'in  writer^  aekiiou  ].  d;;e  t<>  he  .sla\(,iiic. 
HI  id  111  )  .ii,(  -  >  t  h'  1 1  III  I  mat  11  Ills  ;7  .  and  '^tisl  and  the  nanus 
W'li'l,  Wind,  and  th-ir  c 'iidiinat  h  Mis  ;  he  shii\ss  that 
t  i.i  I '  .  ! '  al  M  .lit  MO  iieh  naiii'  s  ( if  |i  .ealit  K  ^  h-  t  w  i  «  n  the 
HI. Ml'     and    th'     hit'i    .Shi\'    honnilar\    m    La  triii    Luinpe. 

'I'll'  M."  t  e.  .Ii\  llKili^'  ale  the  liallliN  I'f  nn'MlilalU--  alid 
I  i\  '  1  .  U(  h  a  Hh'  in,  Lij  'I'e,  .Saali  .  (  >d<  1  .  -  t  e.,  ah  .Sla\  I  ilile 
n::n.'  ■ . 

I\'  '  r  /_'.  n   ki  al  1 1  show  >  that  t  h'  m    Sla\"nie  nan  k  s  cannot 

li 


Slavs  and  their  Earlier  Distribution    15 

be  claimed  to  indicate  colonies  of  Slav  |)risoners  of  war, 
but  clearly  point  to  descendants  of  an  earlier  Slavonic 
population  gave  their  names  to  these  localities  before 
the  Germanic  occupation. 

German  runic  records  also  denote  the  presence  of  Slavs 
as  late  as  the  ninth  century  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine, 
Fulda,  etc.,  and  give  us  the  names  of  over  a  hundred 
localities  previously  occupied  by  Slavs. 

In  most  cases,  however,  the  Germans  on  conquering  a 
new  area  are  likely  to  have  given  it  a  new  name,  so  that 
the  retention  of  the  Slav  designation  would  seem  to 
indicate  that  the  Slav  population  was  only  Germanized 
by  degrees  and  thus  preserved  the  name. 

The  Greeks  and  Romans  of  antiquity  douljtless  were 
acquainted  with  the  Slavs,  although  for  a  long  time  they 
made  no  distinction  between  them  and  tlie  Germans ; 
just  as  at  first  they  did  not  differentiate  between  Celts 
and  Germans.  Ketrzynski  points  out  that  in  antiquity 
the  Slavs  were  known  by  the  name  of  Sucvians,  but  that 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  did  not  know  how  to  pronounce 
the  crossed  Slav  letter  I,  and  therefore  altered  the  name. 
But  that  the  terms  "  Slavs  "  and  "  Suevi  "  represent  the 
same  race  was  long  ago  acknowledged  by  Grimm  and 
other  philologists. 

Caesar's  Suevi,  moreover,  occupied  tlie  regions  which, 
according  to  the  work  in  question,  they  hold  in  Western 
Europe. 

It  is  important  to  recognize  that  the  "  Germania  "'  of 
antiquity  was  merely  a  geographical  expression  and  had 
no  ethnographical  significance.  Cfcsar's  Germania  was 
inhabited  by  Germans,  Suevi,  and  Celts,  and  Germans 
likewise  inhabited  Gaul. 

Tacitus  in  his  work  on  the  customs  of  the  Germans 
describes  German  and  Suevian  tribes  as  belonging  to 
different  nations,  and  Ketrzynski  points  out  tliat  Tacitus* 
description  of  the  religious  ceremonies  of  the  Suevian 
Semnones  and  the  Herta  cult  of  the  Muithonians  and 
others,    with    their    blood    sacrifices,    corresponds    in    all 


IG  BkFORK,    l)l  ring,    AM)    AtTER    1914 

essential  jtartiiulars  with  tin-  ai-c<iunts  ^fi\t  ii  \)\  Atlaiu 
of  Hrniu  n  and  lltliiiolil  in  tlic  (Kvcntli  and  twtlltli 
ct-nturits  of  the  Hadi^'ast  and  S\antt\vit/  cults  anion^ 
tlu-  I'ointranian  Slavs.  Tacitvis"  Sncvi  wiit-  tlu-  Western 
Slavs,  and  his  W  lu di  were  the  Russians  and  uther  Kastern 
Slavs. 

TIm  (iothie  historian  Jordanes  wrote  in  the  sixth  century 
that  Si'andina\ia  was  a  "  factory  of  nations  "'  {ulficimi 
f^rntiunt,  uminti  tiatiitnuni)  ;  according'  to  Ketr/.ynski, 
nearly  all  the  (ii  rnianic  peoples  of  the  Contitunt  came 
fri>in  Seandina\  ia,  whence  as  c(»n(juerors.  or,  in  other 
Words,  as  pirates,  t  h<  \'  occupied  tlu-  nati\'e  lands  of  the 
('(its  ami  SIa\  s  in  (i(  iniany.  They  possessed  a  military 
orj^ani/at  i<in,  and  htiicc  wire  able  to  coiujuer  the  latter 
rae(^,  wh"  laeki  (1  such  or^'aiii/.at ion.  It  is  a  siuniiicant 
fact,  nii'ii  '  i\  I  r.  that  certain  of  tin  (it  rnianie  jKuplts  in 
Middle  Muropc.  such  as  the  (iolhs.  (^  iman  Lonuohards, 
and  Sa\<-iis,  had  inhirited  traditions  of  Seandina\ian 
d'sc' lit.  and  that  others,  such  as  the  I'raiiks  and  Ale- 
niaiiiii.  at  all  «  \t  iifs  sjioke  of  ha\  in^  couu'  from  a  stran^'e 
count  I  \ . 

l-!\<ii  the  l)an<s  said  that  they  came  froiu  Seandinax  ia. 
In  Sehl(  s\\  i;^'  t  rai't  s  l)a\  r  htcn  lound  of  .Sla\ colonics  as  far 
as  .\ahenraa.  If  it  was  the  phiiuh  lin^  incursions  of  the 
Seandma\  iaiis  and  their  colom/ation  at  the  mouths  of 
tli<'  Hhmr  that  ^m\c  rise  to  th<'  mi;;rations  of  tin-  Cells, 
thr  fornn  r  must  li.i\t  s.fthd  in  those  parts  as  early  as 
th<-  sixfji  or  s.  \(ntli  CI  ntury  n.c.  I{\  dt  i,M(  i  s  they  jicnc- 
trat'd  fiiitli<i-  info  tlii-  countiw  and  in  C';esai's  time  a 
coupl'  ol  t  h<  u'  tnl)(s,  tli<-  \  anjjioiK  s  ;ind  Trihoei.  wer«' 
s'ttlfil  p<  1  iiiaiK  ht  1\  in  thr  rejjion  of  Worms  and  Stras 
l>ur^'.  \\  1m  n  I)rusns  in  th<'  \<ar  ".•  n.c.  eidsstd  tin  Khmc 
h'-  loiin(l  til'  (iirmanic  (  hatli  in  the  parts  mlialntid  in 
(.ears  t  ini'  l.\  Su<  \  i  ;  thus  f  h.  I.it  1 1  i  had  in  tin-  mean 
t  111  II      iii-(  uiiiIh  d  in  I  h'    st  ni'ji.;lf    with  tin-  ( ii  i  ni.iiis. 

At   tl  ,    til I  '|';,(  itu>.  or  at   th.    .  nd  o|'  tip    fiist  .■-  ntuiy 

alt-  I    (  hii-t,    till     (oiintiN     Wist    ol    till     |'",ll)c    \sas    onK     in 
li:it>it'ii    \i\     I.oii^oliaids   and    ih  iiihumIuii   as   mdi|iindinl 


Slavs  and  their  Earlier  Distribution    17 

Slav  tribes;  but  towards  the  ciul  of  the  fourth  ecntury 
came  the  Scandinavians,  who  partly  sul)jii«jat((l  and 
partly  aUied  themselves  to  the  Lon^(>i)ar(ls,  whereujx)!! 
the  name  passed  to  the  eoncjiierinff  people,  whieh  became 
a  Slavo-Germanic  raee.  These  Lonjrobards  were  later 
driven  south  by  the  Anf^les  and  \^arini,  who  oeeu|)ied  the 
country  of  the  Ilermunduri  ;  their  mastery  was  broufrht 
to  an  end  in  o.'Jl  by  the  Franks,  who  now  l)eeame  the 
rulinjT  j)eoj)le  on  the  Lower  Saale  and  Middle  Elbe. 

At  that  time  German  tribes  were  almost  everywjiere  in 
possession  of  the  Western  Slav  re<^ions,  and  free  Slavs 
only  existed  in  the  antrle  between  the  ^lain,  Rcfrnitz,  the 
Damibe,  and  IJohemia.  Here  arose  in  02.'3  the  kinoelom 
of  Samo,  whieh  by  the  victory  at  Mof^ast  (near  Bayreuth) 
he  |)rotected  af^ainst  the  supremacy  of  the  Franks. 

A  Serbian  Prince,  Dervan,  whose  people  had  long 
acknowledged  the  suzerainty  of  the  Franks,  seceded  from 
them  and  made  common  cause  with  Samo  ;  Dcrvan's 
country  probably  lay  between  the  Saale,  the  Ilm,  and  the 
Main. 

After  Samo's  death  (G5S)  his  kingdom  was  divided 
between  his  many  sons  and  thus  lost  all  its  im])ortance, 
to  be  merged  finally  into  the  empire  of  Charlemagne  (805). 

The  Germanic  incursion  brought  about  a  general  uj)- 
hcaval  of  the  conditions  in  the  Slav  countries.  The 
possessions  of  the  nobles  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  German 
masters.  Colonists  holding  the  estates  of  others  on  lease 
were  reckoned  personally  "  free,"'  as  were  a  number  of 
military  on  the  Church  lands.  The  great  mass  of  Slav 
peasants  became,  after  tlie  occupation,  the  serfs  of  tlic 
secular  or  ecclesiastical  masters  or  of  the  imperial  crown 
lands,  although  they  were  allowed  to  retain  certain  rights. 
They  were  simj)ly  called  Sclavi. 

After  the  heathen  Slav  kingdoms  in  Xortlu'rn  (iermany 
had  long  been  in  a  state  of  ferment  and  at  war  with  one 
another,  Henry  I  defeated  the  Slav  tribe  of  the  Hevelli 
and  took  possession  of  their  cajiital.  Brandenl)urg  (028). 
The    sphere    of    dominion    of    his    empire    was    widened 

B 


18  l^KFOHK,    DlKINt;,    AM)    AfTER    191-i 

ct»nsi(lfrahly,  wliiNt  at  tlic-  same  tiiuf  tlu-  German  national 
inttr«  sts  wirr  furtliind,  }iavinj»  Imn  seriously  jeoj)ardize(l 
\t\  thr  Sla\-  unr(  st.  The  liirmani/in^'  of  these  Slavs  was 
IhuhuI  til  follow  soon,  for  the  masters  woukl  not  con- 
(Icsc-iMil  to  Irani  the  lanmia«,H-  of  their  sul)jeets  antl  the 
«(•(■](  siastics  showed  a  horror  of  e\erythin^'  Slavonic. 
Thr  eons(  (jU(  lue  was  that  the  Slav  lan^nia^^es  wen-  hound 
sooiit  r  or  latrr  to  die  out  in  (iermany.  \Vhen  this  did 
not  eonir  to  pass  fast  cnou^'h,  their  use  was  simply  j)ro- 
hihitrd,  as  took  phiec  in  IKS.")  hy  means  of  the  decree 
"  K.itiniiitu  iitur"  ("'riKy  shall  he  exterminated  "). 

Tin  fact  of  the  .Sla\"  nations  havini;,  ^em-rally  sjx-akinp, 
for  so  loii<^'  Ih(  II  dominated  hy  the  (iermanie  element  \vas 
h\  no  UH  ails  due  to  inferior  inttlleetual  ecpiipnuiit,  for 
this  has  j)roV((l  to  he  as  ucnerous  as  that  of  tiie  Germans  ; 
tji>  reason  is  rath<r  to  he  sou^'ht  in  the  <ic()<ir(ip}iiciil 
.situiitiiiii  and  the  puliticiil  ((lUilitions  in  their  countries. 

Some  Shi\  s  ha\'e  been  exj)osed  to  As'uitic  invasians, 
\\hieli  |>rt  \»  nted  the  deNclopnitnt  of  their  State  organiza- 
tion and  pro^^'ress  in  culture,  whilst  the  (ienuaus  were 
ahle  to  lollow  a  more  iii(le|)cndent  course  ot' de\'eIopment 
.uid  Win    pn  s(  rved  Irom  forei<^n  o|>j)rcssioii. 

ill  contrast  to  the  slower  and  more  dour  (iermamc 
t' nip«  lament .  the  Sla\s  have  alwa\s  shown  tliemschcs 
li\-h<r,  hri'-k' r,  and  more  srnsiti\c. 

\.'<\^  ot'  lili'  rty  has  also  from  the  r<niot(sf  a«,'es  he(  n 
•  haraet.  rist  le  of  the  Sla\s,  and  they  lia\"e  therefore  Ixili 
!■  -s  anieiiahle  to  discipline  and  to  the  siiJ)inissioii  reipiircd 
hy  niod.rn  State  or;^rani/,at  ion.  to  which  the  Germans  have 

1"  t  t.  V  .uiajt  (  d   t  liemseUes. 

\\  h'  r<  (I-  spotisiii  has  ha<l  tiim-  to  develi'p,  .is  in  Hussia, 
th'  .s!a\  lo\c  <,f  lil)»  rty  has,  lio\v(.\-(  r.  in  the  course  of 
c<ntui!'^  Ii'-ii  suppr'ss((|  ;imon^'  the  mass«  s,  tliouu;h  it 
l"r>i  t'fl  Ml  a  mmority  and  found  eNj)r<  ssion  m  more  or 
!'  —   I '  \  "!ut  ;.  iiiaiA'   moN'ement  s. 

'Ill'-  .^!a\  .  who  since  earliest  antiquit\  lia\  e  oeen])ied 
n,<  ii,aj-r  portion  of  I-'.astern  I^uropc  .and  i/i  adu;ill\-  split 
lip     i::'o       .\Mal      tiili-s.     nia\      I"      di\idrd     .aeeordiiiL'     to 


The  Modern  Slavs  19 

language  into  three  large  groups  :  The  Eastern,  the 
Southern,  and  the  Western.  The  Eastern  group  con- 
sists of : 

(1)  Great  Russians  or  Muscovites,  for  the  greater  part  a 
mixture  of  Slavonie  and  Finnish  tribes,  and  in  a  lesser 
measure  of  Mongolian,  Gothic,  and  other  racial  elements. 

(2)  Ruthenes  or  Ukrainians  -so-called  "  Little  Russians  " 
-inhabiting    Ukraine,    Eastern    Galieia,    Volhynia,    and 

Podolia. 

The  Southern  group  consists  of  : 

(1)  Bulgarians,  a  mixture  of  Slavs  and  the  earlier 
Finnish  Bulgarians,  Goths,  and  others. 

(2)  Serbians,  in  Serbia,  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  Croatia, 
Montenegro,  Styria,  Carinthia,  etc. 

(3)  Slovenes,  in  Southern  Austria. 
Western  Slavs  are  : 

(1)  Poles,  in  Poland,  Posen,  Galieia,  and  Silesia. 

(2)  Slovaks,  in  Moravia  and  Hungary. 

(3)  Czechs,  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  Hungary,  and  Silesia. 

(4)  Wends  (who  call  themselves  Sorbs),  in  the  two 
Lausitz  provinces  (Southern  Brandenburg  and  Northern 
Saxony)  ;  now  numbering  about  120,000.  In  the  oldest 
historical  period  they  were  spread  over  a  far  wider  area, 
as  far  as  the  rivers  Saale  and  Havel. 

(5)  Lettic  and  Lithuanian  Slavs,  in  Lithuania,  Courland, 
and  other  areas.  Prussia  was  inhabited  at  an  early 
period  by  Slav  tribes  closely  related  to  the  Letts  and 
Lithuanians.  They  sometimes  came  in  contact  with 
Goths  and  other  Teutonic  tribes  before  the  great  migra- 
tion of  nations.  They  first  appeared  in  history  in  the 
tenth  century  under  the  name  of  Borussians  or  Prussians, 
who  spoke  Borussian  or  Prussian.  The  name  of  Prussia 
is  thus  of  Slav  origin.  By  degrees  the  Borussians  became 
Germanized  both  in  customs  and  language,  as  did  a  great 
part  of  the  Wends,  with  the  result  that  in  the  Middle 
Ages  they  could  only  be  traced  in  certain  villages.  It 
may  be  of  interest  to  note  that  it  is  from  the  Lithuanian 
that  the  most  characteristic  forms  of  the  German  language 


20         Bk.fouk,  DriuNG,  and  After  101  i 

;irt  (li  rivrd.  vi/.  tli<-  .v  souiuN,  the  ~  sound,  and  tlu-  imiltiplc 
(-(•Il•^"lIl;l^t  ^"Hiiids  Midi  as  tscli,  as  in  thr  word  "  Drntsch." 

I.ookinL'  at  all  tin  sc  Slav  peoples,  one  may  well  wonder 
what  l*aii  Sla\  isni  nu  an^  and  what  can  he  expected 
..f  it. 

Pan  Sla\  i>-iii.  "r  an  <n(lia\i>in"  tu  hrin^r  ahont  a  elost,- 
miion  '>(  all  Sla\'  pccphs,  is  twofold:  Poliliral  Patl- 
.S7/;; /vr/(.  or  a  political  nnii>n  undi  r  Hussia's  ^rni(hinee  ; 
and  CiiUurnl  Pan  Sln\  isii}.  nr  a  eonuniniity  of  intcrc-sts 
f..iiiid'il  "11  racial  pi-id<-  and  s(  nt  iiiK  iit  s  in  the  domains 
of  lif<  ratuic.  lanL.'na!,'c,  i  tc. 

TIk  fir-'t  imp'tus  t<i  this  mo\<ni(  nt  was  ^'ivcn  hy  a 
lit-iar\  int>  II' ct  ual  s.^irty  in  tin  f.irti(s  of  last  c<-ntnry, 
wliidi  h- id  its  iMvt  Sla\'  ('onu'r'^^  in  l'iai,nii  in  the  year 
I^t^.  'I'll'  I'an  S!a\'-iiic  id<  as  w  i  i".  siihs- ( punt  ly  fostcrrd 
in  Austria  and  Hussja,  whir<-  tin-  Sla\  opiiilis  .\k>^akow^ 
Katk"W.  and  "tin  rs  propagated  theiii  with  ^;ieat  assidnity. 
Hussia.  th-  n  til'  "iil\  iiid'  p'lidi  nt  Sla\  Stat<-.  coiislitnted 
h'  r-'  If  at  tir-t  "iiK  llnoii^'li  ii'Wspap'is  and  sociiti's 
III'  rr.if.'tor  of  all  Sla\s.  and  was  a<-''laiiiii  d  as  such  li\' 
Sla\  di  ['Utat  i' -ns  at  tin-  l",t  linoL:r.i  pli  leal  |-",\liiliit  ion  of 
Mose..u    in    Is)i7.      Tli'     P.-l.  .  aloi,.    al.staiii'  .1. 

Pan  Sla\  i^iii  III  |{ii.s|.i  I-,  cMiin'ct'd  with  tip-  IJii-siaii 
Sla\  "pliil'  s'  iiatp'ii.dK  'Xalf'd  tiaeliin^  wlii<-h  elainis  t  he 
>I.i\s   \.<  Im      ■ 'I'll.    (  ii.-,,,    I',  ,,p|,'"   call.  (I   njioii   to  er.at'- 

a    le   \\    el  \  ill/at  I'  .11. 

Alt'i  1^1,7  th'  Pall  .s|.i\' 'iiie  III' i\eiii'  lit  w.isiiioic  anil 
III'.!''  dil^'t'd  t'.waiils  ;i  ji',l/lii,;l  iniinn  o/  ///e  .S7//;v  nndtr 
ll'i  '  I'l  I', .'I,  I  h;ji.  Ill  till-  v(,(;il|,  d  p.ist'TIl  (piestioil 
e' Ml'  '  !  Iilli_;  t|,.  Pilk.ili  .S|:(t's  I{l|ss|;i.  t  ' 'o.  li:i,  \\  ;  1 1 1  f  (  i  [ 
t"  id;.!-,.  I.,  r  '  If  h"t  "iil\  th.  prof,  etr.s-,  ,,f  til,  ()ith.M|o\ 
(.r.  '  k   (  Ii!  1   t  :;,ii      I 'I  it    .al-.  t  h.'   L.'Ua  r.  li.an   of  tie     .s|;i\    .Stat,  s 

p'  'lit  I.   .ill  •.  .      tllM-      :.'l\lllLf      II-.-      t'l       -'Molls      t'llMoIi      li'twi.-n 

\ ' )    til  I   ,  1 : 1 d    I  { I  i      la. 

P'l      1.1    ■    P. Ml   Sl.i\     nil      I'.ii    had.    of   colli-.'  .    t'l    I"     ,ili,-in 
■!-'.d       I.!,:'       .•-L'...  \It|,..|lL.'ll       Rll.sl;,       li.-i,      .-lit.   iiipt.  d       t.) 

a     ;t,    ii,,\',     '.ti',    n"W     aiioth'i-    .sla\     n.tlion.    sh.     h.is,    c.n 


Pan-Slavism  21 

tlu.'  otiur  luuul,  oppri'ssfd  ollur  Slav  jx-oplcs,  especially 
the  Poles  and  the  Ukrainians. 

Moreoxer,  in  our  own  time,  we  have  seen  the  Hul^aiians 
make  a  stand  a^^^ainst  Kussias  l*an  Slavonic  efforts.  On 
the  outbreak  of  the  World  War  a  member  of  the  Slavonic 
Society  at  Sofia  wrote  an  article  in  tlu-  I'olijd  newspajjer 
in  which  he  criticized  Uussia's  veiled  l*an-Slavonic  threats, 
i'or  ■■  Russia  does  not  contend  I'or  the  suj)remacy  of  the 
Slavs,  but  for  the  con(piest  of  the  smaller  Slav  })eoj)les  — 
and  is  the  worst  eneniy  of  the  Slav  idea."' 

There  can  therefore  be  no  question  of  a  '"  Pan-Slav- 
onic "'  dan<Ter  to  Cicrmany  from  the  East. 

Pan-SIa\ism,  on  the  otlier  hand,  might,  if  it  were 
consistent,  demand  the  reunion  of  the  Prussians  with 
the  Sla\s,  and  the  expulsion  of  all  German,  Esthonian, 
Finnish,  Tartar,  and  Circassian  elements  in  Russia  ! 

Cultural  Slavism  is,  moreover,  nowadays,  hardly  Pan- 
Slavonic,  even  thou«4h  literary  federations  and  congresses 
between  Slav  ])eoples  have  taken  place.  But,  in  any 
case,  these  are  of  a  pacific  nature.  Slavism  is,  in  tliis 
respect,  no  enemy  of  Germanism,  even  if  it  attem])ts  to 
safeguard  the  unhampered  development  of  the  Slav  })eoples 
and  to  combat  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  Germans. 

Is  it  really  fair,  apart  from  cconotnical  and  poUlicdl 
interests,  to  see  in  the  cultural  leanings  of  the  Slav  j)eoples 
elements  of  (hmger  to  Em'opean  civilization  and  hiunanity  ? 
Have  not  the  Slavs  produced  great  minds  and  been  of 
some  use  to  humanity  ? 

Let  us  cast  a  cursory  glance  over  Slav  cultin-e. 

John  IIuss,  the  head  of  the  University  of  Prague,  who 
attem{)ted  to  bring  al)Out  the  reform  of  his  Church  a 
century  bel'ore  Luther  and  Avas  condemned  to  be  burnt 
at  the  stake  in  1415,  was  a  Czech,  born  in  Rohemia,  as  was 
his  disciple  and  collaborator  llieronymus,  sentenced  to 
the  same  death.  IIuss  inaugurated  a  new  era  in  Czech 
literature,  further  encouraged  ])y  the  Hussites  :  this 
literature  had  its  golden  age  in  the  sixteenth  and  at  the 
beginning   of  the   seventeenth   centuries,    when   arts   and 


22         Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

sciences  were  fretly  cultivated.  The  Czech  progress  was, 
however,  arrested  in  17  71  by  an  Imperial  decree,  which 
ordained  that  the  Ciirnian  lan^'ua^'e  alone  slM)uld  he  used 
in  the  hi^'her  (dueation,  whereupon  long  and  hitter 
internal  strug<,'lts  were  waged  hy  the  C'/eehs  against  the 
Germans.  At'tir  181S  the  C'/eehs  hegan  to  gain  for  them- 
selves a  stronger  national  position,  and  a  mnnher  of 
poets  Czelokowsky,  Kollar,  Holly,  and  others  as  well 
a-s  historians,  areha(>lf)gists,  and  naturalists,  now  made 
their  appearance.  A  society  for  Czech  literatun-  was 
formed  in  conjunction  with  the  Holuinian  Museum, 
whieh  magnilicent  building  was  comj)let((l  in  1S'.>."5.  Since 
IS.S'J  the  I'niversity  of  Prague  has  had  a  Czech  and  a 
German  sec-tion. 

Poland  gave  l)irth  to  tjie  celebrated  astronomer 
Coj)ernieus.  'i'iiat  country  has  also  ])i-od\ie((l  a  large 
munber  of  eminent  writers  widely  known  ami  admired 
Nieme«  wiez.  Miekiewiez.  Slowaeki,  (io^zeyn^^ki,  Krasin^ki, 
I-'clinski,  Krazewski,  Si(  nkievicz.  and  others  in  addition 
to  many  liistorians,  such  as  I,(l(\(l.  Clnxlzko.  .Soltyk, 
H</.ozowski,  Mi*  rosjavski,  I)eml»rinski.  \\  alis/twski.  ( te. 

The  I 'iii\  1  i^lt  \  of  Warsaw  A\as  long  niaint  aiiird  by 
relish  s;i\;iiifs,  l»ut  Hussiaii  oppirssj.in  gradually  dro\-f 
them  a\\a\'.  Tin  1 'ni\  t  rsif  jcs  of  (raeow  and  Lcmlx  rg, 
which  forimrK'  unK  had  (iii-iiian  |)r<  ifcss.  us.  ha\'e  now 
\'><v  s<\.ial  dicadi  s  brcii  staffed  soldy  with  I'oh  s.  and 
IiialiV  <>!'  fhrs(  ha\(  bet  Ii  eminent  scientists  of  I'^uropeaU 
fame,  siieli  as  the  aiiafomiv,t    Kadyi  and  the  l)act  eriologist 

HlllMd.    '  te. 

Arch:f  "|.  ,^r\-  has  had  a  famous  represent  at  i\f  in 
.Majcwsk,. 

I^ll^^i,!  in  IIh  nineteenth  oiituiA  pioducc  d  a  I.iIl'' 
nu!)  \>  I  of  :;  nt  licis  (,f  hiL'li  I'ank  :  amoiiL.'  I  In  ( .ii  at  -  IJussiaus 
j'i,^!iki:i.  I,'  tiiioiitcl'i,  H.  -^luchell.  11.  r/.'  n.  I  )ost  <  .y.  \  ski. 
TuiL.  Ill'  \'.  AK  \.  i  Tolstoi.  I,i<.  Tolstoi,  ;ind  ot  h- is,  ;ind 
ail."!!.'  rkiaini;in-  Kol  lar<  \  ski.  (io^,'o|.  K\ifko.  (iul.ik. 
Sji\tj  iiko.  \s  .  mmeiit  histoii.ins  and  ai  ch.e.  ilo(_'ist  s. 
.'rii'l,;'     t  h'       (  il'  at    Hussialis     w<       lia\'e      HoLldaliof!.      Hae  r, 


Slav  Civilization  2.3 

Zap;oskine,  Klinccwski,  PlatonolY,  VinogradolT,  Kunik 
SchachnuitolY,  KondakolT,  J,  Tolstoi,  and  otlurs,  and 
among  the  Ukrainians  Ducliinski,  Kostomarov,  Kulisj, 
Ilruscvski.  Antonovitch,  etc. 

Amon«j  the  many  Russian  natural  scientists  arc  num(  rous 
famous  men  :  the  })act(  riolof^jist  ISIctchnikolT,  licad  of  the 
Pasteur  Institute  in  Paris  ;  the  chemist  Mendch  jew, 
famous  for  his  researches  in  the  domain  of  physical 
chemistry  ;  the  })hysi()l()oist  Pawlow,  wlio  some  years  ago 
was  awarded  the  Xohcl  prize  for  epoch-making  research, 
etc. 

Russia  is,  moreover,  distinguished  by  a  large  number 
of  scientific  institutions  and  museums,  where  many  learned 
men  are  working. 

Scientific  education  among  the  Ruiheiies  is  provided 
for  by  foiu'teen  Ruthenian  professors  and  lecturers  at 
Lemberg  University. 

Among  painters,  sculptors,  and  musicians  the  Slav 
peoples  also  have  a  number  of  eminent  representative  s. 

As  regards  the  Balkan  Slav  nations,  it  is  only  in  n  cent 
times,  after  they  had  thrown  oil"  the  Tiu-kish  yoke,  that 
they  have  been  able  to  attain  a  high  stage  of  culture. 
Among  these  peoples  the  Bulgariinis  are  more  i)artieularly 
deserving  of  attention  on  account  of  their  quick  ji(  rcej)tion 
and  anxiety  for  advancement.  All  Bulgarians  n  C(  ive 
school  education  and  love  their  studies.  A  University 
exists  in  Sofia,  where  humanistic,  juridical,  and  scientific 
sid:)jeets  are  taught.  Bulgarian  poetical  art  bears  a 
humanistic  and  social  stamp,  and  kee})s  to  realities.  Its 
foremost  exponent  and  the  most  modern  representative 
of  South  Slavonic  cultiu'e  is  Ivan  Vazov,  who  took  part 
in  the  revolutionary  movements  against  Turkey  and 
described  these  with  j)0(tic  fervour  in  many  of  his  writings. 

The  Serbians  have  also  reached  a  higiur  stage  of  educa- 
tion since  the  wars  of  liberation.  A  University  has  Ixen 
instituted  at  Belgrade.  Several  })0(ts  and  novelists  of 
high  rank  have  ap|X^ared,  among  them  Katjanski,  Raditi- 
jevitj,  and  Lazarevitj. 


IV 

(.KKMANVS  ANCIKNT  C.KKMANS:  TIIKIH  KARLV 
DISTKIIU  TION  AM)  HAVAC.KS  :  TIIK  (.KKAT 
MI(. RATION  OF  NATIONS  AND  THK  i;1:HMAN 
WARS  OF  THK  MIDDLK  ACiFS  :  TllF  THIRTY 
VFARS  WAR  :  TllF  PRISSIAN  STATF  AND  TlIF 
I'ARIITIONS  OF  I'OFAND 

At  an  carK'  ]m  riod,  al)i)Ut  li\c  liuiuiiril  \rais  u.c..  or 
|)<  rlia]'^  as  (ally  as  tlu  sixth  cr  stxtntli  ctiiluiA  H.c. 
ScamlinaNia  and  the  (itiii  r  Halfic  coiiiif  lii  s  \\(  ic  tlic  ln>iiu' 
of  til.  ( i.  I  manic  t  iilx  s,  \\  ho  Mi;i,iuall\  sjui  a<l  fiirt  h(  r  soiit  h 
and  <  ast .  Tht  (  a  I' hi  st  nio\  i  ni(  iif  s  ani<  in^st  t  hi  ni  of  \\  hich 
\S'  ha\  I  an\  ii  < m  d  s(  (  m  t  o  ha\  i  In  i  n  dn  i  cti  .1  not  1 1>  t  hr 
\si-f.  hut  to  t  hi  south  and  last.  (ills  .tud  Sla\s  h(iiiij 
th  i\  I  n  out   or'  ahsoi  h(  (I  t)\    t  hi  in  in  f  hi    |iro(i  ss. 

Till    ii.inii    of  (,<  inians  is  (  i  jtic  and.  <  iii'jinalK  ,  |»rol)alil\ 
nil  aid    ■■  ni  iLddmuis    "  ;    it    \\as  n'w ^  n  Ity  the  (  »  Its  in  (iani 

to  ;i   (I  ai|i!i     of  siiiall  (  I  It  ic  flout  li  r  t  nix  s  ;i|id   to  t  he   |>i  o[)|(  s 

iidi.d lit  iii'_'  t  111  ot  In  r  sjdi  (pf  t  111  Rhine.  At  I  111  Ik  LiinniiiLr 
of  t  h'  last  CI  lit  iir\  r,.(  .  this  was  |irol.;ihl\  w  hat  tin  L'oiiialis 
nil  ant  to  coii\.\  \,\  it  :  t  hi  diiiks  did  not  know  tin 
(.'iinaiis  as  a  s,  [i;ii;iti  sl.cK.  and  c;i||(d  thiiii  (ilts  m 
Si\thi.iiis.  (  ,rs;ir  Was  till  tiisl  to  distin'jujsh  tin  in.  as 
I'-aid-  l.inL'naL.'!  and  cusloins.  from  |  hi  ((Its.  R.  ci  nt 
)i!  i!' •!'  '  II  :d  I'  ^'alih  h.is  shown  that  tin  lalii.'uaL:i  of  tin 
Mill  I  lit  ( I'  I  II  1.1  n  -  w  .IS  r.  l.it  I  d  to.  hut  ditli  ii  nt  from,  that 
of    t!  .     (  .  It     :      hoth    |..  opl.  s.     hk.     tin     (.1,  ,  ks.     R'omans. 

.'^l.i\     .      ill.,      h'   |oliL.'i  d      to     tin        Ilido- Fuio|M  an      failllK      of 

l.iIr'M.,..'.     .. 

•J  I 


Germany's  Ancient  Germans  25 

III  (itriiiaiiy  Uk'  uiici(  lit  Celts  iiiliahitt d  the  <-(uiiitrv 
eastward  as  far  as  tlu  Kllic,  and  were  called  Hel<,Maiis  in 
North  (ierniany,  Waleiiiaiis  in  Middle  and  South  (iermaiiy. 
Partly  by  voluntary  cnii^n-ation,  i)artly  by  the  pressure 
of  the  arms  of  the  advancing  Germans,  tiiey  left  the  re<,Mon 
cast  of  the  Rhine  in  the  latter  half  of  the  last  century  B.C. 
Only  a  few  reninants  n-mained,  which  were  (Germanized. 
Consitlerably  <rrtater  was  the  intermixture  of  the  Celtic 
element  with  the  South  (i(  rmaii  tribes.  The  Celts  west 
of  the  Rhine,  wiio  sjxjke  a  Romance  lani,mage,  were  also 
Germanized  in  due  course. 

The  (nrmaiis  of  anticjuity  were  exceedinfrly  uncultured 
barbarians,  with  no  civilization  whatever,  when  the 
Romans  lirst  became  acquainted  with  them,  and  they  did 
not  even  live  in  ori^anized  communities,  but  in  a  number 
of  tribal  afji^rcf^ations  -some  forty  altoifether — which  were 
frequently  split  u})  still  further,  l)ut  sometimes  combined 
for  joint  warlike  enterprises.  When  they  were  not  fiffjiting 
they  lived  in  idleness  and  indoknee.  letting  the  old  men, 
women,  and  slaves  attend  to  the  cattle  and  cultivation 
of  the  soil.  As  Tacitus  says  in  his  Gennanid,  they  could 
sometinu  s  be  the  idkst  and  sometinu  s  the  most  turbulent 
of  human  beings  ;  war  and  dangers  were  the  ir  only  n  al 
pastime  :  in  the  intervals  of  j)eace  they  W(  re  immeasurably 
addicted  to  gambling  and  drink,  and  the  blood  of  friends 
and  kindretl  often  sullied  their  noisy  revels. 

"  Their  boundless  forests  were  devoted  by  the  Germans 
to  the  |)leasures  of  the  chase,  and  the  greater  i)art  of  the 
country  was  used  as  j^asture  ;  the-y  cultivate'd  carelessly 
an  ineonsidirable  j^ortion  of  it,  anel  then  com])laineel  of 
the-  infertile  soil  of  their  native'  lanel.  which  coulel  not 
maintain  its  inhabitants.  When  now  and  again  the 
horrors  of  famine  re'inineleel  theni  of  the  uses  of  inelustry, 
the  national  elistress  was  sometimes  relie  veel  by  a  thirel  or 
a  fourth  part  of  the'  country's  youth  epiitting  it  "'  (Paulus 
Diace)mis,  aceetrding  to  Gibl^on.  Decline  (ind  Fall  of  the 
Ro))nui  Empire). 

Ca'sar  in  his  Gallic  Wdr  states  that  the  l'oreme>^t  nations 


26         Before,  Durinc,  and  After  1014. 

of  "  Gcrniania  "  wwc  (1(  siroiis  of  surrounding'  tin  ir  Ijoun- 
(larit  s  with  uninliahitt d  and  divastattd  n  Ljions.  and  that 
th»sc  tcrrihlc  hordrr  hinds  hon-  ghastly  t  vidcncc  of  the 
j>«>\vi  r  of  tin  ir  arms  and  sliit  Kird  thcin  from  the  (hiny*  r  of 
surprisi  attacks.  Accordinjj  to  Tacitus.  "The  Hructcrian 
trilx  \\as  (  xt<  riiiinat(  <1  hy  its  n<  iLddxuis  the  (hatti,  who 
\\»  rt  inc  iis((l  at  th(  ir  arrogance  and  t<  iuj>ted  by  tin  ir  own 
rapacity,  and  <»<).()()()  barbarians  succumlH d,  not  to  Homan 
amis,  but   Im  flirt    our  e\(  s  and  to  our  advantage  ." 

It  was  futile  for  strangers  to  put  th(  ir  trust  in  thtse 
barbarians.  Of  the  I'ranks.  the  Ali marmi.  and  others 
it  was  s;dd  that  tli(ir  cliaracti  r  was  distinguished  by 
rajiacit\'  anil  b\  eiinternj)t  for  the  most  soliiun  treatiis. 
and  that  it  was  nsrl(  ss  to  fry  to  bind  theiu  by  any  jiact. 

1  r((l'  ri(  k  tlu  drc  at  in  i  Antinuuhiiivtl  has  suj)plied  us 
with  an  inf  <  rt  st  iiig  tlescrij)t  ion  tif  the  migrations  t»f  the 
imrthirn  jHtijilis;  "I  ha\'c  ahvays  ht  Itl  the  c(»n\ictit>n 
that  the  abst  nee  of  intlusfiiis  iu  a  large  lut  asure  brt»ught 
alx)Ut  tht  se  L'igatit  ic  migrat  ions  fit  in  i  t  lit  ntirt  In  rn  comif  ries 
t>f  th'sc  (iiitiis,  tliiN(  X'antials.  whti  sti  tiftiii  s\\.  pt  ti\ir 
t  h'  si.uf  h'  III  eouiif  lii  s.  In  t  hat  rtiiintf  i  jxich  agricult  ure 
anil  huiifui'j  ui  re  tin-  sdj,-  indusf  lit  s  know  n  to  the  inhabi- 
tants <,f  .S\S(.i.ii,  I)(  iiiii.ii  k.  and  flir  LTrrati  r  p;iit  of  (iir- 
nian\'.  T!:-  .-il-as  eajiabjc  uf  eulti\ation  Wire  tli\ititd 
bitw.ina  cMlain  nuinbi  r  tif  landiiw  U'  rs.  w  hn  cidt  i\att  il 
flu  III  and  tliiis  tibtaiiiid  th-ir  susf(nane<  finiii  flit-  snij. 
Huf  as  til'  liMiii;in  race  in  thtsr  cold  cliinafis  has  al\\a\s 
b<  '  n  \M\  piiililic.  a  eiiunfrx  offiii  cuntainitl  f\sier  as 
iiiany  p'  ippl-  as  if  (..nld  snppnif  b\-  work,  and  flu  \tiunL.''  r 
III'  iiib  r-.  iif  v.i\\  f(i  ijti  faiiiili'  s  f  hi  n  foriiH  d  \\ailiki  bands  ; 
tli'V  \\'  v<  in.f  I  ii  i>  ills  iiibbiis  bv  sj  r,  ss  (if  eireiuiisl  .inc'  . 
tlii\  i.i\a'.'i<l  tifliir  cduntriis  ;inil  di  posed  fluir  nil-  is. 
W  I  lia\  I  s,  ,  II  Hi  till  i'lasf  (  rn  and  W  <  sf  i  in  H'  >iiiaii  l-",nipiri  s 
ill. it      Ill's,       li;ill);iri.ilis     Usn;dl\'     tiliK      d'Hiallii'ii      I.iimI      to 

iulti\.it(  .■ii.'j  L'i\f  till  111  siisf(  n.iiiff.  Till  iioilliiin  eoiiii- 
tri'  .  .ii'  ii'.t  I'  ss  inli.ibilid  fli;in  flii\  \\  -  r.  flun.  but  as 
hi\iiM'.u>  li.diifs  |i.i\c  mult  ipliid  t>iir  n.  <  ds.  fh.  \-  li;i\-.- 
:^'i\'ii    ris,     fi,    nian\     aits    and    mdiistii's.    which    siijipnit 


Early  Distribution  and  Ravages         27 

entire    nations    that    would    otherwise    Ix-    eonipelled    to 
seek  their  sustenance  elsewliere." 

The  Homan  Empire  made  its  fn-st  acquaintance  with 
the  northern  barbarians  when  Teutons  and  C'imbri,  occupy- 
ing thi-  present  Mecklenburg  and  Ilolstein,  began  (ll.'J  ii.c.) 
to  move  southward  owing  to  the  overflowing  of  the  lialtie  ; 
they  wen'  defeated,  however,  as  W(  re  further  invasions  of 
France  and  Italy  in  102  and  101  n.c.  Shortly  Ix  fore  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era  the  (iermans  once  more 
so\ight  to  penetrate  into  the  Roman  Kmj)ire,  but  W(  re 
defeated  by  Julius  C'lcsar  and  Augustus,  whereupon  a 
part  of  Germany  was  made  a  Uonian  j)r()vinee.  1'he 
Germans,  however,  won  several  decisive  battUs,  as  in  the 
Teutoburger  Wald  in  a.d.  D,  By  degrees  int(  reourse 
between  Germans  and  Romans  began  to  develoj)  through 
trade,  and  by  taking  service  with  Romans  the  Germans, 
whose  migratory  instinct  never  quite  left  them,  obtained 
early  knowledge  of  the  Roman  Empire  and  a  strong 
inclination  to  possess  themselves  of  a  part  thereof.  In 
the  reigns  of  Tiberius,  Vespasian,  and  Domitian  the 
Romans  had  many  a  hard  tussle  with  tlu-m,  and  for 
centuries  after  the  struggles  with  the  invading  Germans 
from  the  north  and  the  east  continued.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  third  century  the  Alemanni  under  Caraealla  a  j)peared 
for  the  first  time  and  looted  Italian  and  (iallie  territory, 
but  were  defeated  in  213  on  the  ]Main.  Siiortly  aftc  rwards 
fresh  hordes  of  Germans  crossed  the  Rhine  and  Danube, 
but  were  thrown  back  in  235  by  Septiniius  Severus. 
Gallic nus  (253-268)  formed  an  alliance  witli  them,  married 
Pipa,  a  king's  daughter,  and  gave  her  father  extensive 
possessions  in  Hungary.  Under  this  em})eror  the  Goths 
invaded  the  Roman  Empire  and  ravaged  Gaul.  Greece, 
and  the  East.  Trebizond,  a  rich  colony  with  magiiilieent 
buildings  and  art  treasures,  was  stormed,  and  tlie  j)opula- 
tion  put  to  the  sword  without  mercy  ;  the  most  sacred 
temples  and  the  most  superb  architectural  monuments 
were  levelled  to  the  ground,  and  the  destructive  ferocity 
of  the  Goths  knew  no  limits.     Nicomcdia,   Prusa,  Cieus, 


28  Before,  Diking,  and  Aitek  r.)ll 

and  «)tli(.r  nii]k  rl»  titi«s  in  Hithyiiia  subsi  (jiu  lit  ly  shaiid 
the  saiiu  fatr.  aii<l  siXcial  \\t  ic  hiliiit  to  tlu'  ^roiilui. 
Aft(  r  till  aiicit  lit  and  \(niial>!t  city  nn  tlu  island  of 
C'y/.itiis  had  Inm  lai<l  wasti  ,  a  similar  fate  Ik  fill  IMraus 
and  Atliins,  whiili  wtir  aKo  (kstioyitl  to  a  uit  at  txttnt, 
and  scoii  aftt  r  'I'lit  Im  s,  Aij^'os,  t'oiintli,  S|)aita.  and  otlur 
towns  \s(  IT  \isit((!.  tlir  wars  la^^inL'  tlironi,diont  tlu-  wlioK- 
of(ii(((t.  Inllitiiid  |-",}»li(  siis  f(  11  a  \  ict  ini  to  tlu  chstiiu- 
ti\tn(ss  of  tlu  (i(itlis,  and  Dianas  fanions  trnij)lc'  was 
hurnt  and  (Kstioycd  witli  all  its  |)rt{ious  scnlj)t lUt  s  hy 
l'ra.\it(  1' s  and  otliir  ancirnt  inastt  is  who  made  the 
tt  liiplc  oiu-  ('f  tlu-  woiidi  Is  of  the  world. 

Dniinu  the  ci  iitnri(  s  which  followtd.  tlu-  incnrsions  into 
tlu  Ivoniaii  l'!niiiiri  hy  (k  rnians  and  otiur  haihariaiis 
IxcaiiM  iiu>r(  aiul  iiioi'(  fiiMiiit  lit.  altluiiiLih  tlu  y  w<  re  most 
str(iiuon-<l\  o[>]i(iS(<|  l)\-  Cdiist  aiit  iiic  tlu  diiat.  Julian, 
and  ot  lu  r  (m|Mr(ii-s.  'j'h,-  (ir(;it  Mi'jratioii  of  Nations 
fourth  to  sixth  cintuiA  was  douhthss  |>iimari!y  hi-oULihl 
ahout  \>\  till  |iri^--urr  of  tlu  tiiiihlr  lluiis.  who  ahout 
'A7*'>  dii  \'  out  tlu  (ti  rmaiis  ;  tlu  latli  r  in  turn  |n  lu  trafcd 
di  I  [•'  r  Mifo  t  h'  IJi'inaii  i-'.m|>ir(.  vshuli  wa-  iu>w  iuor( 
and   Ui'  ■!'    t  hr<  ;it .  lu  d   l)\    1  lu  iii. 

'I'hi  li  luis  w ,  1  (  a  n<  'Iliad  pi  oph  fri.m  t  Ik  I  lal  and  Altai 
iiu'Unf  .iiii-.  who  oiiuinalK  shared  with  Moiujols.  'I'uik^. 
'riiiiL'U  ^.  alid  ('tlur  laci  s  the  st<|)|M  s  of  (nitlal  Asia. 
I.<  iiiL'  '  ■  fi  'i(  I  111  (  liii^t  laii  (  ra  t  lir\  wi  ii  a  powc  rful  t  iiln 
(rf  iiMinad  huiitirs  and  sji,  [ihii'ds.  who  did  not  |»ia(tis<- 
aL'iuult  nil  .  and  if  tluir  h'lils  no  louiji  r  found  snUici,  nt 
sii-tiiiauii  111  IJii  |.  L'U'ii  which  tlu-\  occU|iicd.  flu\ 
\\alid'lti|  (ill  III  --.arch  of  fl-sh  |ias|uii--.  This  dlhn 
till  lUL'ht  t  Ih  III  Hit  M  coll  the  t  with  I  t  111  r  |  h  o|  iK  s.  and  at  an 
tails  -t  aL'i  of  t  In  ii-  hi-^t  I  ■!  \  t  1  i  \  I  x  calm  kin  iw  n  in  (  li  i  na 
:t  -  .-1  ti'  1  '  I  .1  III  i  \'.  a  Mils'  lac.  ThiA  W  >  r.  i  |i  aiht  j.  ■■  t  -  i!i|  it  i  d 
1 1\  t  h'  \'.  -  a  It  h  I  ■!  t  In  count  I  \ .  am  I  t  hi  11  imui  --h  r  ■  \h  ca  iiu 
-.1 '  ij.iic"  I"'  a;^  t  li.i  t  (  I,  Ilia  \s  a--  ohliU'  1 1  fi  'I  |  il  i  ■!  i  it  a  a  i  1 1 '  i  1 1  ct 
tl  .  (.1  ..t  Wall  .ili'ii-  III.  \'.lioli  iii'ith.  Ill  l.'.iimlai  \  (tn.m 
•Jl  t  I...  .  I.  In  pit.  (.f  t  hi  oh-t.ii  I.  tl  '  lliiii-  ("111  mm  d 
t  !;•  II    I  ..a  I     mil'  (  hiiia  ainl   w-  r.    not   •  \pi  lli  d    mill!    \.  I  >.   !Hi, 


The  Great  Migration  of  Nations         20 

Owing  to  wars,  internal  unrest,  and  a  devastating,' 
famine,  the  Huns  were  eomiKlIed,  at  the  hejfinninff  of  t he- 
fourth  century,  to  aban(h)n  the  stepjus  of  Tartary  and 
niifjrate  in  a  westerly  direction.  They  split  up  into  two 
main  bodies,  of  which  one  settled  east  of  the  Caspian  S(  a 
whilst  the  remainder  niarehed  onward  to  the  I'ral  rnoui* 
tains,  from  which  they  descended  towards  the  Caucasus 
and  the  IJlack  Sea.  Here  they  attacked  the  warlike  Alans, 
a  Sarmato-Ciothic  jKople  who  lived  between  the  Caspian 
and  the  Hlack  Sea,  wher(Uj)on,  makinif  common  cause 
with  them,  they  penetrated  into  ICurope  jind  subjugated 
a  part  of  the  (loths  who  lived  north  of  the  Black  Sea  on 
both  sides  of  the  Dnic|)er,  whilst  another  i)art  were  forced 
across  the  Danube  into  Roman  territory.  The  Km^xror 
Tluodosius  was  compelled  by  Attila.  kinfj  of  the  Huns,  to 
purchase  peace,  and  a  number  of  peoples  in  Central  Kin-ope 
had  to  acknowledpje  the  dominion  of  the  Huns,  whose 
emj)ire  thus  extended  from  the  Caspian  Sea  to  the  Rhine. 
Attila  crossed  that  river  in  151,  (kstroyed  a  number  of 
towns  in  Gaul,  and  finally  threatened  Paris,  though  the 
onslauoht  was  averted.  When  he  attacked  Orleans  the 
Romans,  joininij  hands  with  the  Visitroths,  came  to  the 
rescue,  whereupon  a  terrible  battle  ensued  on  the  Cata- 
launian  Fields,  near  Chrdons-sur-Marne  (1-51),  Attila  had 
Germanic  tribes  fightino-  for  him,  and  thus  l^rother  fou<]rht 
ao'ainst  brother.  Attila "s  army  was  defeated,  and  he 
withdrew  to  Italy,  burnino"  and  sackin<if  its  cities.  On  his 
death,  soon  after,  there-  was  a  oreat  battle  between  the 
Huns  and  Germans  in  Pannonia  (south  of  the  ^Middle 
Danube),  as  a  result  of  which  the  Hims  withdrew  to  South 
Russia,  whence  their  descendants,  under  the  names  of 
Avars  anei  Himgarians.  from  time  to  time  broke  fe)rth  and 
insj)ireel  terror  amonof  the  neighbourino-  pcojiles. 

The  Ostrogoths,  afte-r  they  hael  been  expelleel  by  the 
Huns,  maele  themse'lves  masters  of  Panne)ni;i..  anel  another 
Germanic  tribe,  the-  (ie-])iei;e.  seitle-d  in  Dae-ia  (Hungary). 
Fresh  Germanic  ]xoj)le's  constantly  a)")peare'el  e)n  the  scene  : 
no  sooner  had  one  be-en  defeated  than  ane)ther  turneel  up 


30  Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

and  thrt-iitciutl  the  Uonians  ^vith  unsapjxtl  vi^'our.  The 
Vandals,  under  Gtnsirik.  j)lundiU'd  Honii-  and  sailrd  across 
to  C'arthaf^f,  (k- vast  at  in  ^'  tlic  coasts.  Tlic  I'ranks  and 
AUrnanni  burst  intt>  Hmnan  tt  rritory  in  anotht  r  din  ct  ion, 
the  Saxons  attacked  the  coasts,  and  the  (iotlis  souiilit  to 
sulxiuc  a  part  of  the  country. 

In  tin  int(  rnal  struL'^K  s  in  Home  durinu  t  lie  fifth  century 
(i<  rnianie  elii<  ftains  and  leadt  rs  assisted  the  various  j)arti(  s, 
and  at  tiiiK  s  iwu  n<iniinatt(l  the  einjH  rors.  T\\c  Hurjjmi- 
diaiis  took  possi  s^i^ln  of  s(  vi  ral  southern  provinces  in 
Ciaul.  ami  the    Xi^i^oths  iMcaiut    niasttrs  of  Spain. 

Rome's  last  (  niprror.  Hoinulus  Aui,Mistulus,  was  ciiosen 
l)V  the  l)arl)ariaiis,  wjio  dt  nianded  that  he  should  act  as 
tiny  IhoULrht  lit  and  ^M\e  thtni  a  third  of  Italy's  soil. 
When  this  dtiiiand  was  rej- eted.  one  of  tluir  c-hieftains. 
Odoae- I-.  j)laei  li  himself  at  the  head  of  a  l:<  ik  ral  risinrr  ; 
iimiK  n^'  le\i>  s  of  Ci<  rmans  ass.  niM( d  un<lt  r  his  hamx  r. 
and  h'  (li|)oscd  the  en)|M  ror  \\itliout  (htlieully  in  ITtl. 
()(loae<  I  1)1  came  Home's  mastir,  aholisheel  the-  imp'  rial 
t  it  1'-.  and  eall'  d  hims(  If  KiiiL'  of  Italy.  lie  t  Ik  iv  ii])eiii  uave 
a  third  I'f  tlii-  evdupn  ri  el  country,  whie'h  in  many  |tarts 
was  ijuit-  lieimdi  <!  of  its  po|)\dation,  te)  his  compamohs  in 
arms,  .itid   ptd\i(|   hims(lf  a   wise  aini  eapal>l<'  re  l'<  nt . 

The  powerful  Ostro^riith  Kin:,'  Throdorie-  the-  Cireat, 
how<  \(  r.  yieldi  (I  to  the  hire'  of  Italy,  whie-h  he-  conepiereel  ; 
h'-  det'ialeel  Odoae'er  ill  [S'J  and  1!»().  and  sul)S((punt ly 
e-aiiscd  his  assassjuat  inu  (H>.'{)  in  orde-r  that  he-  nii;,dit 
rul'-  alou'-. 

TIm'  (i'liiiaiis  had  now  assumed  possession  of  the 
\N'i  stf  rii  Hoiiiari  Mmpire.  They  wii-e  surprised  at  its 
or;^'aiii/.'  d  ei\ih/.at  ion,  its  ma^jnilie'eut  huildiuL'^.  .•upi'  eluet  s, 
etc.,  and  L'l'idualK'  ada]»t(d  theuiselxis  as  pe  I'luaiient 
oeeupii  Is  to  s.  ttjed  e-oiiditions  an<l  the  more*  ad\;ineed 
e'i\iji/,at  joii,  ;iiid  went  so  far  as  to  adopt  many  Roman 
iiistifutjon^,  a\.iiliii'_'  t  li'ins(  l\-cs  of  Rouian  rxperjriiee 
and  lai'L''  1\'  adopting  Roiii.an  laws. 

W  h' M  tiie  (iirmaus  iii\ad' <1  the  Ri)mau  P'aupire  its 
\itaht\-     was     capped     hv     i\t  ra\;ii..'ant     !i\  iiiL!,     \  ice,     and 


German  Wars  of  Middle  Ages  31 

much  misery  ;  heathendom  no  longer  had  any  hold  on  the 
minds  of  the  people,  and  Christianity  had  not  yet  leavened 
its  eiistonis  and  morals.  To  their  own  viees  the  Germans 
added  those  of  the  vanquished  :  deeeit,  eunning,  and 
refined  viee  on  the  one  hand,  eoarseness,  rapaeity,  and 
feroeity  on  the  other. 

Throujnrhout  the  Middle  Ages  the  Germans  remained 
the  same  and  repeated  time  and  again  the  eamj)aigns  of 
loot  and  plunder  of  the  migration  epoeh.  They  did  not 
know  the  meaning  of  intertribal  loyalty  ;  the  love  of 
fighting  was  in  the  blood,  and  they  retained  imeivilized 
customs  longer  than  their  neighbours  the  Italians  and 
French.  For  many  centuries,  from  the  twelfth  onward, 
the  party  names  of  Guelph  and  Ghibelline  were  associated 
with  incessant  civil  wars  for  the  {)ossessi()n  of  the  German 
Imperial  crown.  During  "  the  Great  Interregnum,"'  for 
twenty-two  years  (from  1250),  general  lawlessness  prevailed, 
and  no  one  could  claim  to  be  in  possession  of  the  throne. 
Throughout  Germany  there  was  the  greatest  misery,  and 
the  throne  was  offered  to  the  highest  bidder  amongst  the 
vassals.  Club-law  flourished  everywhere,  and  there  was 
no  one  to  protect  the  people  against  the  arrogant  feudal 
barons.  The  aristocrats  were  mostly  predatory  knights  ; 
their  castles  were  robbers'  dens,  and  to  ])lunder  the 
travellers  was  their  sole  profession.  Rudolj)h  of  Ha[)sbnrg, 
however,  managed  to  subdue  the  most  powerful  vassals, 
and  destroyed  some  seventy  of  the  castles  of  these  pre- 
datory aristocrats. 

Many  attempts  were  made  to  curb  the  pugnacious  spirit 
of  the  Germans.  The  Emperor  Weneeslaus  proclaimed 
in  1389  a  general  truce  for  six  years,  and  a  ten  years" 
truce  was  decreed  in  1486  by  the  Diet,  whilst  in  149o  the 
Diet  of  Worms  proclaimed  that  perpetual  ]icaee  should 
thenceforward  reign  in  the  German  Enipire.  But  it  did  not 
prove  of  long  duration.  The  Protestant  revolution  brought 
about  political  disruptions  which  continued  for  a  whole 
century,  bringing  devastation  and  chaos  in  tiuir  train. 


.32  Hkfore,  DrRiNO,  and  Affer  lOli 

TIk-  Thirty  Vi:ir>^  War  was  hrout^'ht  about  originally 
1)V  r(li<jioiis  (liffcnncc  s,  l)ut  liad  aKo  another  and  far 
more  important  cause,  namely,  politics  and  State  intrii;uc. 
Tiie  prince  s  fought  in  s(  If d*  fence  or  for  con<juest,  whilst  the 
people  onl\'  knew  of  the-  reli;,Mous  incentive,  whic-h  was 
exploited  hy  the  former  to  ^'ain  the-  support  of  the-  masse-s. 
The-  World's  history  harelly  records  a  more-  harharous  war; 
the  re  was  sc-are-ejy  a  j)ro\ince-  in  (ie  rmany  which  was  not 
laid  waste,  nnel  bestial  fi-roe-ity  usurjx-d  the-  place>  of 
ci\ilizat iou  this  a  century  after  Luther  and  contenipor- 
aneouslv  with  Descartes,  Hae-on,  (Jrot  ins,  and  other  master- 
minds of  other  countries.  I  will  ejuote-  he-re-  what  an 
eminent  (ie  rman  historian.  I'rofessdi-  M.  IMiilippson,  \\re)te 
about  the  Thirty  'S'ears  War  in  his  (nsclt'tclilf  (hr  fuutitn 
'/.lit  (vol.  viii  (A'  .ilht/miiu  U'dhjt.^rliichlr,  \)\  Tli.  Flathe- 
aiid  oth<  rs)  :  "  .Soon  tjie  sojdiciy  jooteel.  jijunde  red.  burnt, 
torture  el.  and  murdi  led  as  ;i  mattrr  eil"  e-i>insc.  for  t  he 
sheer  pl(  asure  ol"  tin  thiuLT.  1' lii  ud  anel  enemy  was  all 
the-  same  to  fhe-m:  tlnii-  own  counti-y.  under  whose 
bamiers    th<\     fought,    was    s|)ar(d    as    little    as    a    for(  iiin 

land.     .     .     .    Th<  y     fell     like     Ixasts     of     pi'e  y     upon      |>(;u-(  tul 

re  prions.  sto|«  what  tlnre  was  of  \alue  and  di  iiiolislnd 
till-  r<st.  d(sfro\(d  the  e-rops.  tortured  flic  inhabitants 
to  elicit  where  tiny  kept  their  tr«asur(s.  and  raxidud 
wi\(s  ;uid  <_'irls.  If  resistance  was  offered,  mureh  r  was 
deiue-  ein   j.iineiple.   and   neither  e-hileire  ii    in   arms   uor  eijel 

me  II  We  re-  spareej.  It  was  a  la\e  lUlit  e-  spent  amoUi,'  these- 
e-reatures  to  imjiah-  little  e-lulelle  li  eiu  the-  Jteiiuts  eif  theii- 
lanee  --,  dash  t  lie  ui  aL'aiust  walls,  e  ,r  re  >ast  t  he  lu  in  the-  e  )\(  iis. 

.  .  .  All  eral'ts  died  eillt.  \  llla^e  s  Wele-  des.  ited;  tlleisc 
who  e-eiuli|  tly  hiel  the  Uise  |\e  s  ill  weieiels  .-lud  e-a\e  s.  Ileuise  S 
\Sere-     s.ie  ke  el.      lielels      Wele       laiel      Waste.     ;iliel      the'     ele--tltute- 

iiihaliit  aut  s  in  the  ir  dire  e  \tie  iiiit\  .-ite  the  boelii  s  of  the  ir 
de  ae|  ;  iia\  .  weiise  IhiliL's  liappe  lie  e|  :  liuinau  be  iii^'s.  e  \  e  ii 
de  |i  U(-e  |e  ss  ehiMreU.  Were'  s|.-|  11  L' h  t  e  le  ( |  |or  fooe  i .  These 
h'.ri-ors  ai'  no  fllbles;  t  In  \  were-  relate  el.  ||o|  e,|ie-e,  but 
liniteli  <  e|>  e  it  I  Mile  s,  b\-  (  \  e-  W  it  lie  -s(  s.  .  .  .  Spot  I  e  e  I  t  \  pi  1 1  is 
.•lliej      other      eeillt  a^'ie  Ills      dis(;is(s      Weje        the        ine\itab|e        ee,|l- 


The  Thirty  Years   War  38 

sequence  of  famine  and  finished  those  who  were  spared 
by  the  sword.  .  .  . 

"  No  wonder  that  a  formidable  depopulation  took  place 
in  Germany.  It  is  computed  that  in  lGt8  the  country 
had  but  a  third  of  the  population  of  1018.  .  .  .  In  Fran- 
conia  the  depopulation  was  so  great  that  every  man  was 
allowed  to  have  two  wives.  .  .  .  Trade  and  handicrafts 
were  dead  ;  the  German  bourgeoisie  lost  all  power,  courage, 
and  initiative.  Germany's  material  decline  was  sad 
enough,  but  still  sadder  was  the  moral  and  intellectual 
decay,  and  even  now  the  injury  done  to  the  psychology 
of  the  German  people  by  the  Thirty  Years  War  has 
hardly  been  repaired.  A  savage  and  coarse  s[)irit  pervaded 
all  classes  of  the  nation.  .  .  .  The  crassest  superstition 
reigned,  and  the  atmosphere  of  terror  and  bloodthirstiness 
in  which  every  one  lived,  the  latitude  given  to  base  pro- 
pensities, were  bound  to  dull  the  spirit  even  of  the  better 
among  the  people  and  turn  them  from  the  beautiful  and 
noble  to  the  black  snares  of  sorcery.  The  soldiers  thought 
that  they  could  be  shielded  from  the  enemy's  weapons 
by  all  sorts  of  witchcraft,  and  never  and  nowhere  has  the 
faith  in  sorcery,  with  all  its  appalling  and  dcadl}'  con- 
sequences, been  so  general  as  in  Germany  during  the 
Thirty  Years  War.  A  whole  literature  sprang  up  about 
witchcraft,  which  was  supposed  to  be  inspired  by  the  devil. 
Countless  human  beings,  especially  women,  fell  victims 
to  suspicion  of  witchcraft.  The  long  civil  war  smothered 
the  last  remnants  of  national  sentiment.  The  idea  of  a 
common  country  was  meaningless  to  these  Germans,  who 
for  thirty  years  had  butchered  one  another  in  the  most 
revolting  manner. 

"  The  religious  character  of  the  war  was  lost  sight  of  by 
degrees  and  was  replaced  by  the  most  shameless  and  self- 
seeking  scheming  amongst  those  in  power.  .  .  .  An  ap- 
palling apathy  stole  over  the  entire  German  people.  Such 
things  as  loyalty  and  pride  were  dead.  Foreigners  bore 
themselves  like  arrogant  conquerors  ;  they  felt  that  they 
were  more  brilliant,  richer,  and  happier,  and  cvcrytliing 

c 


.34         Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

foreign  was  adinirtcl  unci  iinitattcl.  National  productions 
of  any  kind  were  dt'rided  and  (Itspiscd  as  bcinp  vulvar.  .  .  . 
The  >>}iirit  of  flattery  and  toadyism  was  rampant  ;  every 
one  cringed  before  his  superior,  hut  treated  his  suhortlinates 
with  insoit-nee  and  contempt.  It  is  supj)osetl  that  this 
rej)ulsive  combination  of  al)jeet  servility  and  arro^rance 
still  survives  in  many  parts  of  Germany.  The  princes 
saw  in  their  subjects  nau«;ht  l)ut  a  flock  existinj;  that 
it  might  be  shorn.  .  .  .  The  nobility  fawnetl  Uj)on  the 
princes,  and  the  bouriieoisic  on  the  nobility,  the  princes, 
the  (jllicers,  and  civil  ollicials,  and  those  who  did  not 
succeed  in  gettin<^  ennobled  sought  some  honorary  title. 
No  branch  of  activity  fell  into  greater  neglect  than  that 
of  the  learned  j)r(»fessi(jns  ;  masters  and  students  fled 
before  the  wild  clash  of  arms,  or  the  students  fell  victims 
to  the  lure  uf  ligiiting.  At  Ilclmstiidt  in  IC.'ii  there  were 
UH)  students,  but  two  years  later  all  lecture-halls  stood 
empty  and  only  one  professor  remained.  Sa\  e  for  a  few 
exceptions,  the  (iermans,  impoviTished,  coarsened,  and 
debased  by  the  war.  were  \mable  to  ktcp  pace  with  the 
striking  an<l  flourishing  advance  of  the  exact  sciences  in 
Italy,  I-'rancc.  the  Netherlands,  and  iMigland.  (ierman 
scholars  were  obliged  to  go  to  fitri  ign  umvi  rsities.  .  .  . 
It  needed  the  effort  of  two  centuries  to  heal  these  wonnds 
inflicted  on  the  (i(  rman  people,  to  replace  the  weeds  by  a 
fruitful  growth.  Wi  the  effort  has  not  (piite  sueccichd, 
and  many  of  the  fa\ilts  and  sjiortcomings  lure  touched 
upon  remain  to  this  day,  though  in  diminished  measure." 

I  \sipul(i  point  out  that  it  is  ii  (arntan  historian  win*  has 
supplied  t  his  dcNcript  ji  ui. 

\i\  file  IN  ace  ol"  W'otphalia.  which  to  this  (|;i\-  has  been 
th'  b-di'ick  of  (i-  rniany's  politic.d  oi"i:ani/af  ion,  the  (ier- 
nian  confederacy  receivMl  a  more  deluute  const  it  ut  ion  ;  a 
It  al  con  fid.  rat  ion  was  formed  which  niainf  aimd  an  inteinal 
(•(pnhbrium  ;  the  princes  of  the  l'',iMpn-i-  were  to  lie  inde- 
pendent and  the  Imperial  authority  became  mer(  I\'  formal, 
w  if  h  t  lie  result  t  hat  t  he  count  ry's  unity  was  d<  st  royed.  The 
old  (i'  rman  lunpirc  was  diss..l\(d  by  Napoleon  in  1S()<'». 


The  Prussian  State  85 

Germany's  population  IVll  tlirougli  the  Thirty  Years 
War  from  about  sixteen  or  seventeen  millions  to  abtnit 
five  millions,  so  that  for  a  eouple  of  centuries  there  was 
no  laek  of  sj)aee  for  the  rapid  growth  of  the  population. 
In  order  to  further  this  growth  the  Franeoiiian  Diet  held 
at  Nuremberg  in  IG.^O  aetually  legalized  bigamy. 

Prussia,  which  under  the  "  Great  KleetcM-,"'  Frederick 
William,  became  an  altogether  independent  State  (1057), 
had  through  the  ravages  of  the  Thirty  Years  \Var  sunk 
into  a  state  of  the  profoundest  misery,  but  soon  revived 
under  the  influence  of  this  resourceful  monarch.  Under 
his  son,  Frederick  I,  tlie  kingdom  of  Prussia  was  recognized 
by  the  Peace  of  Utrcclit  in  171. '3.  Under  this  king,  as  well 
as  under  liis  successor,  Frederick  William  I,  the  country 
continued  to  prosper,  the  neglected  soil  was  cultivated 
by  a  number  of  settlers,  and  about  174()  the  poj)ulation 
amounted  to  two  and  a  quarter  millions.  Frederick  the 
Great,  by  his  victories  and  wise  administration,  raised 
Prussia  to  the  dignity  of  a  Great  Power,  and  during  his 
reign  the  population  rose  to  nearly  five  and  a  half  millions. 

In  conjunction  with  Catherine  II  of  Russia  and  Maria 
Theresa  of  Austria,  Frederick  the  Great  undertook  in 
1772  the  first  partition  of  Poland,  on  his  jiart  a  measure  of 
protection  against  the  threat  of  Russia's  growing  ])ower. 
Had  he  not  consented  to  this  jjartition  of  Poland,  Russia 
would  have  taken  an  even  larger  slice,  having  ])reviously 
by  force  and  treachery  hastened  the  internal  dissolution 
of  tlic  country.  The  Prussian  State  now  regained  West 
Prussia,  which  the  German  Order  had  ceded  to  Poland 
in  the  year  1460. 

This  encroachment  on  the  life  of  another  nation  cannot 
be  condoned  from  our  modern  {)oint  (jf  view,  but  it  should 
be  remembered  that  such  acts  were  less  reprclunsihlc  in 
the  eighteenth  century  than  now,  as  the  principles  of  the 
rights  of  nations  were  then  not  so  widely  aeeej)ted,  and  the 
question  of  nationality  did  not  weigh  against  the  exigencies 
of  the  State.     The  onlv  one  of  the  three  States  wliieli  could 


86         Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

})lcad  tilt*  stress  ol"  self  j>reservation  was  Prussia.  Kast 
Prussia  was  siparatttl  from  tlic  kingdom  by  West  Prussia 
(tlien  a  part  of  Poland)  and  praetieally  defeneeless.  Al- 
tliou},'h  Frederiek  the  Great  now  proj)Osed  the  juirtition 
of  Poiantl,  it  was  nevirthekss  the  Russian  Minister  Panin 
who,  in  1703,  lirst  su^^j^isti-d  the  itka  in  a  eonnnunieation 
to  the  Prussian  Ambassador  Salms,  when  FrecUriek  at 
first  reeoilttl  from  it. 

Of  Poland  it  can  be  said  that  siii-  almost  deserved  the 
calamity  of  177-,  having  regard  to  the  appalling  disoriler 
within  the  eountry  and  the  internal  stpiabbles  whieh  let 
in  Kussia  as  tlu-  dominant  PoW(  r  ;  but  nevertheless  the 
stcoiid  j)artition  of  Pohmd.  in  17'.'.'5.  as  well  as  the  third, 
in  17'.'.").  was  an  infamw  a  diabolical  murder  of  a  nation, 
whiih  nuist  for  cmt  be  deplon d  by  history.  Frederiek 
the  (ireat  was  not  then  ali\c  ;  he  would  certainly  n( Acr 
hav<-  coiis(  nti  (1  to  these  crimes,  whilst  his  fee  i)K-  successor, 
Frederick  \N  illiam  II,  was  only  too  ^\illing  to  suj)port 
Russia's  nefarious  plottings  against  regeiuratid  Poland 
anti  to  lay  hands  on  furf  her  slic(  s  ot  the  unhapjiy  count  ly. 

Th(  conduct  of  the  thr(c  (ireat  I*oW(  is  towards  Poland 
had  a  very  dehterious  eff<-ct  on  the  public  morality  of 
Furopc.  Peo])le  accustomed  theinseUis  to  ac(jui<  sceiice 
in  acts  of  violence  which  were  nexcr  righted  or  atoiud  for 
and  thus  SI  r\t  tl  as  «  ncouragement  to  others.  F\(  r  since 
that  rtN'olting  murder  of  a  .State  to  our  time.  Russia, 
Austria  and  Prussia  ha\c,  ho\\t\er,  bicomc  a  prey  l»» 
anxiety  and  lia\e  sought  to  pres,  r\-e  a  certain  undcr- 
st.'indmg  in  mt( mat  loiiai  cfiinplieat  lolls,  for  t  lie\'  ha\'e  !ie\'<  r 
felt  (juitc  sure  of  the  I'olish  nation.  Ry  constant  diplo 
mat  ic  sl(  i;^r|,t  s  of  liaiid  it  has  bi  (  n  s,,ii;jht  to  repau"  w  li.at 
was  at  the  s;iiii<  tune  a  |o||\  and  a  ernne.  V^v  it  was 
doubtjiss  foolish  and  thouuh''^-  "f  I'ru-sia  and  Ausliia, 
at  any  rate  sumv  Pol.m.ls  r'^;<  neial  ion  alt<r  I77"_'.  iiol  to 
s<  (  k  lt\'  all  possiMi  n.c.ins  In  nidinhiin  <i>i  i iidijii  ndi  lit 
I'oUind  lis  the  In  ^1  hnl:iiirJ:  irju'm^l  aJ:  i;)i(  in<j  Mum  m  ilistn. 
Poland's  final  dissolution  m.idi  Russia  ;i  direct  nei^jhliour, 
and  tli<    lat'-r   Power   has  thus  j/.Lin<(l   the   inlliM  nc(    o\(  r 


The  Partitions  of  Poland  87 

European  affairs  whicli  Prussia  and  Austria  sought  to 
prevent,  whilst  their  PoHsh  prey  was  but  an  ilhisory  gain 
which  often  became  an  oppressive  burden.  Moreover, 
the  two  German  Empires  have  never  succeeded  in  Ger- 
manizing their  PoHsh  subjects,  but  tormented  them  instead 
and  tried  to  keep  them  under,  thus  fanning  the  national 
hatred  on  both  sides. 

Silesia  was  also  brought  by  Frederick  the  Great  under 
the  Prussian  Crown.  This  land  received,  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  after  the  great  migration  of  nations,  a  mixed  j)opu- 
lation  of  Slavs  and  Germans,  ])art  of  the  country  coming 
under  Poland,  part  under  Bohemia,  and  part  imder  German 
dominion.  In  the  course  of  a  long  scries  of  internal 
dissensions  the  population  was  augmented  by  German 
settlers  and  became  in  l.'J'iT  a  Bohemian  dependency,  but 
came  later  under  the  German  Emperor,  and,  in  1720, 
Maria  Theresa  was  proclaimed  its  ruler.  Frederick  II 
laid  claim  to  certain  Silesian  duchies  in  171-0,  and  this  gave 
rise  to  the  Seven  Years  War,  which  ended  with  the  cession 
of  Silesia  to  Prussia  in  1763. 

Of  the  four  and  a  half  million  inhabitants,  about  a 
million  are  Poles  and  a  hundred  thousand  Czechs, 
Moravians,  and  Wends. 

Altogether  Prussia  has  something  over  three  million 
Polish  subjects  in  West  Prussia,  Poscn,  and  Silesia,  and  in 
Posen  they  constitute  a  majority  and  number  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  population. 


V 

risk  am)  sk.xii  kanck  of  (.humanism  : 
(;i:hmamsti(  dhkams  of  (.hkatnkss 

NaI'DLKOn's  victorifN.  altrr  lie  had  foriucd  tlu'  Hliine 
C'i>ntV(l<racy  and  dissdlvcd  tlic  old  (icniiaii  l-jiipirc  (ISOO), 
turned  out  in  tin-  end  to  Ix  ol'  the  L-rtatcst  sii,'nilicancc'  to 
Prussia.  \slucli  uiidt  i"  I'ridi  ritk  William,  in  alliance  with 
Russia.  lMiL:land  and  .Sweden.  Tornied  the  l<  nut  h  coalit  ion 
against  Napolton.  The  iiuniediate  siijuej,  howcNcr,  was 
the  detVats  of  .](  na  and  Ausftrlit/..  where  the  I'liissian 
nrinv  was  (hstroyrd,  whertujxtii  Xapohon  made  his 
'■ntr\'  into  Herlin  and  iinitos((l  on  I'riissia  a  war  indemnity 
of  l.">'.t.(i()().(i()()  francs.  Afti  r  he  had  Ixaten  the  Russians 
at  Fylau  and  I'riedland.  he  inad(  the  Fiace  of  Tilsit  (ISO?) 
with  AIe\;ind(  r  I.  hy  which  I'russia  lost  half  her  territory 
and  \\as  in  addition  hirhiddi  n  to  ki-ep  an  army  of  luorc 
t  liaii  ;;."). n(i()  nun. 

Till  1  en  lie  lit  aifaiiist  Napoli  <  ill  in  Fur<  ipe  hecanu'  l'<  nt  ral, 
and  in  ( .erniaii\  t  In  ii  had  (  \ist  i  d  since  t  he  !*<  ;iee  of  Tilsit 
a  \ast  s(  (ii  1  siKi.ty  c;ill'(l  the  Tul'"  ndhiiiid.  lia\  int,'  the 
hliei.it  |.  Ill  i,\  Ih'  eoiinlry  fur  its  ;iim.  Its  louiider  was 
M.  Ariidt.  iirofessor  of  |iisfor\,  who  soiin  reeei\ed  the 
suppoif  of  s(\(ral  (\  Ministers.  JiiLihly  placed  ollict  rs. 
Dr.  (i.'ihii.  etc..  .•mil  I'lehtc,  the  phiji'sophir.  also  contri- 
l)iit'd  in  ;i  laiL''  m<asiir.  to  ii.ii  iiiu'  the  n.ation.al  f(  t  liiiLJ 
and  st  reiiu't  h'  ihiil'  the  socii  t  \  hv  his  .U(  .s  S(/^',-  ti,  ihr  (it  r  in  an 
\,ili"n   f  I.sds  ). 

This  hrin^s  us  to  the  hirth  of  d'l  ttfiiniistn,  or  the 
< ,,  rntmi  i-^l  ir   Idiits.      ( i<rnianisiii     is    usiialK'    in    (i(  riiian\' 


Rise  and  Significance  of  Germanism     39 

a  linguistic  term,  associated  with  peculiarities  of  the 
German  language,  of  expression  and  ])hrasing,  notice- 
able in  the  use  of  foreign  tongues,  and  the  term  ''  Ger- 
manist  "  has  currently  been  applied  to  scholars  engaged  in 
German  philological  and  antiquarian  research. 

But  Germanism  has  also  received  another  meaning,  and 
has  become  a  national  or  race  term  brought  into  being  by 
the  modern  nationalist  asj^irations,  so  that  the  word  has 
come  to  stand  for  interest  in  the  racial  unity  of  Germanic 
peoples,  in  the  course  of  which  movement  the  Germano- 
phils  have  often  been  guilty  of  somewhat  remarkable 
exaggerations. 

By  the  term  "  Pan-Germanism  "  is  meant  a  striving  for 
a  closer  union  of  all  Germanic  peoples  :  Germans,  British, 
Dutch,  Scandinavians,  without  regard  to  historical  ante- 
cedents or  admixture  of  races  amongst  all  these  peoples. 
The  term  is  particularly  intended  to  denote  a  ]-)artly 
existent,  but  partly  non-existent,  kinship  in  characteristics 
and  culture,  and  in  reality  Pan-Germanism  has  no  meaning 
at  all,  is  a  pure  fiction. 

In  a  quite  distinctive  sense,  mostly  outside  Germany, 
Germanism  has  been  interpreted  to  mean  the  Germans^ 
systematic  endeavour  to  become  predominant  in  Europe. 

The  Pan-Germanistic  idea  of  peace  and  alliance  ])ctween 
Germany  and  neighbouring  Germanic  countries,  more 
especially  Scandinavia,  has  therefore,  with  few  exceptions, 
never  commended  itself  to  the  Germans. 

The  specific  Germanism  arose  through  Napoleon's  policy 
of  conquest  and  his  attempt  to  create  a  universal  monarchy 
which  pressed  on  Germany  with  iron  weight  and  had  for 
its  object  the  partition  of  the  old  German  Empire  and  the 
obliteration  of  its  nationality.  This  state  of  things  gave 
rise  to  a  very  deep-rooted  movement  in  which  national 
consciousness  learnt  to  seek  fresh  strength  in  the  recollec- 
tion of  former  history  and  in  the  faith  in  the  future  des- 
tinies of  the  nation.  Originally  this  national  movement 
was  quite  natural  and  justified  :  but  it  was  soon  entrusted 
witli  a  far  bigger  mission  than  the  ]irottction  of  the  country 


40         Before,  During,  and  After  1011 

against  conquest  and  tlie  rousing  of  tlic-  national  spirit  : 
it  was  to  become  a  civilizing  movement  in  a  wider  sense  ; 
it  was,  in  time,  to  put  other  tiatiom  in  the  ahade,  or,  in  some 
way  or  other,  under  the  German  nation.  To  civilize  the 
world  was  to  be  synonymous  with  Germanizing  it  ! 

To  strengthen  the  national  spirit  it  was  important  to 
endeavour  to  prove  the  superiority  of  the  Gernums  in  the 
nalm  of  int<  lUct  and  thus  j)ave  the  way  for  their  material 
powir.  Hy  his  Me.ssat^e  to  the  (icrrnun  Sutiuri  Fiehte 
wished  to  rousr  the  peoj)lr  from  its  desj)ond(.iu-y  to  a 
proud  consciousness  of  self  and  to  the  struggle  for  its 
existence,  and  he  extolled  '"  the  deej)  sincerity  and  moral 
jnirity  of  the  Gernuin  sj)irit  ""  in  contrast  to  "  the  IU)man 
degeneracy."  He  sj)oke  of  "  (ierman  lidility  and  honour," 
"  (ierman  profundity."  etc.,  which  flattered  the  nation 
and  has  since  become  an  axiom,  nay,  a  dogma,  among  the 
(iermans.  Hy  d(  grec  s  tluy  accustomed  themselves  to 
believing  in  tin  sup<  rior  nature  and  loftit  r  destiny  of  tin- 
Cierman  jx-ople.  and  in  l.sTJ  they  were  rij)e  to  hear  from 
the  writi  r  J^ggo  that  "  in  thi-  German  people  the  whole 
es«,ene<-  of  humanity  has,  so  t(t  sjxak,  ralliccl  to  a  centre 
and  taken  (1<  tinite  shape  ;  in  every  Germans  soul  the 
human  genius  has  been  integrally  realized." 

In  truth,  one  stands  aghast  at  the  mental  arrogance 
which  finds  exj)r(ssion  in  such  terms.  It  is  noteworthy 
that  the  gicat  (ierniau  poets  and  thinkers  who  preceded 
that  eha»i\iuistie  era  Kant,  (ioetlie.  .Schiller,  Herder, 
Li  ssiii|r,  Klopstock.  \\'ielau(l.  (tc.  did  not  take  up  this 
one  si(|.  (1  national  st  Miulpoiut ,  but  were  imi\'ersal  and 
huniaiii^tie  III  their  tr(  nd  of  thought. 

DuruiL'  th'-  n  action  which  followed  Napolion's  I'all  in 
I M  ."i  tli«r'  jin.sc  a  new  imj)ortant  factor  in  the  Geiiuan 
iiat  !■  >ii.'il  iu"\"eiii<  lit  to  wit,  the  Christian  factor  and 
til'-  ii[ishot  was  a  Christinn  luruKnii.stn.  which  <  nianated 
hoiu  fhf  I 'iii\-.  rsit  n  s.  The  student  eliiii<  nt  which  todk 
pall  in  th<-  War  of  Liberation  \vas  now  to  be  placed  on  a 
iofti'i    plan>    than   Ihi    old  enar^f    and   lieeiitidus  acadeniic 

!l|V.        New     socirlies,     ' '   Hll  1  scheuselial  t  en ,   '     Weir    recruited 


Rise  and  Significance  of  Germanism      41 

from  ''  Cliristiaii  Germanic  youtlis  "  who  were  to  ^uide 
the  country  towards  a  greater  I'Liture,  Germany's  civil- 
izing world-mission  was  identified  with  the  future  of  the 
Christian  religion,  whereby  chauvinism  and  militarism 
were  placed  on  a  religious  basis  and  a  real  fanaticism  could 
be  engendered. 

In  view  of  this  incredible  exaltation  of  German  culture 
by  the  Germanists,  it  may  be  fitting  to  call  to  mind  what 
the  great  men  of  other  nations  had  done  for  culture  in 
the  modern  epoch.  1  will  mention  but  a  few  of  the  most 
famous  names  : 

Ilaly :  Dante,  Ariosto,  Tasso,  Petrarch,  lioccacio, 
L.  and  F.  Socino,  Gentili,  Brimo,  Savonarola,  (ialileo. 

Spain  :    M.  Servcto,  Calderon,  Lope  dc  Vega,  Tirso. 

France :  Lcf6vrc  d'fitaples,  Forcl,  Corneillc,  Moli^re, 
llacine,  Descartes,  Pascal,  P.  Bayle,  Voltaire,  Diderot, 
Condorcct,  A.  Comte. 

England :  Wycliffc,  Francis  Bacon,  Locke,  Hume, 
Milton,  Shakespeare,  Newton. 

We  have  also  to  remember  that  the  German  nation  is 
far  from  being  a  pure  Germanic  race,  but  has  since  ancient 
and  mediaeval  times  been  mixed  with  other  races,  Celts 
and,  more  especially,  Slavs.  Many  who  think  themselves 
typical  Germans  are  just  as  much  Slavs. 

Luther  was  of  Wendish  origin  ;  his  father  came  from  a 
peasant  stock  in  Mohrc,  in  the  Thiiringerwald,  and  was 
called  Luder,  a  name  which  Luther  originally  bore. 

The  philosopher  Leibnitz  was  not  altogether  German  ; 
his  father  was  a  Czech  and  emigrated  to  Germany  ;  the 
family  name  was  Lubinicczii  or  Leubnizii. 

Kant's  ancestors  emigrated  to  Germany  from  Scotland. 

Dr.  Gall,  the  father  of  ]:)hrenology,  the  founder  of  the 
study  of  the  functions  of  the  brain,  was  descended  from  a 
Lombard  family  of  the  name  of  Gallo, 

Rudolf  Virchow,  Germany's  foremost  re]~)resentative  in 
pathological  research,  came  from  Further  Pomerania  and 
was  descended  from  a  Slav  faniilv. 


42         Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

Princf  IJisinarck,  a*^  lu-  himself  declared,  was  of  Wendisli 
descent,  and  was  not  always  willing  to  he  calKd  a  (ierinan, 
fts  may  he  ^'at lured  from  a  frank  talk  which  he  had  in 
lS(i»;  with  N'apoleuii  Ill's  cousin,  Prince  Naj)oleon,  repro- 
duced in  the  Fi'^ara  in  lhl»l.  In  the  course  of  their  chat 
ahuut  ei.mmon  jxtlitical  interests  and  the  ac(juisition  of 
land,  (tc.  in  wliieh  Hismarek.  des|)ite  (ierman  opinion, 
showed  his  indifh  renc<-  ahout  the  Rhine  frontier,  he  let 
fall  the  rmiark  :  "  I  am  nut  German  ;  I  am  a  Prussian, 
a  Wend.- 

Nrither  was  the  phiI<>so])her  Niit/.sehe  a  pure-l)red 
(iernian.  as  he  had  Slav  Mood  in  his  veins.  The  foundir 
of  his  family  was  a  Polish  nohlcman  who  about  171<)  lied 
with  wife  and  childri  n  to  (ii  iiiiany.  Xiet/.sehe's  whole 
t»  rid(  iicy.  t<M.,  was  anythini,'  hut  (ierman. 

Tiie  historian  Treitsehke  was  of  Sla\'  dcsecnt. 

Li^zt.  the  composer  and  j>iamst,  was  a  IIunLrarian, 
dcsci  nd' (1  from  an  aristocratic  family  of  old  nohility  ; 
he  \sas  horn  at   Haidin^',  in  IIuiiLrary. 

It  should  also  he  noted  that  a  \t  r\'  <,'reat  munhcr  of 
(iermanv's  most  famous  men  in  the  realms  of  culture  were 
Jncs. 

Amou^r  the  musicians  we  may  mention  Meyerheer. 
M<  iid.jssohn- Part  holdy,  and  Hi  chard  WaLTiier.  The  hitter's 
father  was  an  actor  named  (ieyer.  a  name  which  fre(jUently 
occurs  amonij  the  Jews  in  (iirman\'. 

11.  n<  ni<-.  the  port,  was  a  .Jew. 

Amoiii;  philosMph.  is  tli<-  folli  i\\  iuij  arc  famous:  Moses 
M.  ii(j.  Ps. -liii.  ^I.  H-ilz,  M.  l.a/aius,  prof(  ssor  i>\'  racial 
p-ycliol(  ,;_ry,    Prdi-sor    H.   (ohn,   and   Stcyuthal,    |irofessor 

of  phil'  '1'  <'JV,    etc. 

.\moiit'  hot.ini-^ts  I'.  (,.  (dhu  and  \.  Piiuifslieiin  were 
f.imou^,  and  .i^  iii\iiitiir  in  thi  tiiM  ,,[  <  li  cf  rieit  \'  and 
maL'tntism  II.   11-  it/  li-.ns  ;i  ci  j.  1  ,r;it -d  name. 

In  ni'dieiiM-  \\ '  |ia\  (■  a  jonu  list  of.I.w  s  who  h:i\'e  aeliie\-((l 
distinction;  T.  11'  nl<  ,  piof.  .s.  .r  of  .mat  oin\  ;  I..  Trauhe, 
prof'-sor  in  e\p.  rin;<  nt.i!  patliol(,..\   ;     I.  Hosi  rit  li.il.  ner\'e 

p!i\  ^lo!o;_fKt    ;      A.   I-",uI(  nhuTL'.    U>   IV'-    patjloloirist    :     t!ie    Nollel 


Rise  and  Significance  of  Germanism      48 

I'rizc  winner  Professor  Ehrlicli,  bacteriologist,  the  inventor 
of  Salvarsan,  the  most  effective  remedy  against  syphihs  ; 
Neisser,  the  discoverer  of  the  veiiiele  of  infection  of  j^'onor- 
rhoca ;  Lesser,  Fleseh,  Hhischko,  Weehsehnann,  etc.,  and 
other  famous  venereologists. 

Theories  soon  arose  as  to  Germany's  destiny  and  cultural 
mission,  and  a  feelinfj  was  created  that  Germany  should 
assume  the  mastery  of-  not  only  an  understanding  with  — 
all  nations  related  to  the  Germans,  witiiout  regard  to 
material  and  historical  factors.  That  these  theories  have 
borne  fruit  is  evident  from  the  fate  of  Schleswig  and 
Alsace-Lorraine  in  our  own  time. 

A  remarkable  influence  was  exercised  by  the  philosopher 
Hegel's  peculiar  sj)cculations  on  the  history  of  the  world. 
When  the  "  world-spirit  "  has  attained  one  of  its  higher 
phases  of  development,  it  exercises  absolute  power  :  the 
pcojile  which  then  represents  the  world-spirit  dominates 
all  others  through  the  irresistible  force  of  the  mind.  In  the 
face  of  this  absolute  right,  the  other  nations  are  "  rcchtlos.''' 
The  world's  history  has  been  passing  through  four  stages 
of  devclojiment  :  the  Oriental,  the  Greek,  the  Roman, 
and  the  Germanic.  In  the  last-named  phase  all  peoples 
meet  their  ultimate  destiny,  and  in  it  the  world-spirit  is 
unified  ! 

The  godlike  glory  of  the  German  nation  was  thus  demon- 
strated l)y  Ilegel  in  a  fantastic  ])hilosophical  system,  and 
it  cannot  fail  to  have  been  very  flattering  to  the  Germans 
that  the  evolution  of  the  world's  history  should  culminate  in 
tlie  Germanic  World  Empire  to  which  all  other  nations 
must  bow. 

Hegel's  successors,  in  an  orgy  of  chauvinism,  carried 
these  ideas  still  further,  and  tlieir  influence  on  German 
policy  to  this  very  day  is  obvious. 

The  Stdalsh'J'irou  (1 810)  contains  the  following  statement : 
"  No  jieojile  in  the  world  has  hccn  favoured  by  Providence 
with  a  nobler  ancestry,  a  more  glorious  historical  record, 
a  loftier  dcstinv  than  the  German  !  " 


44         Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

Rottcck  wrote  his  celebrated  History  of  the  IVurld  in  the 
same  vein  of  specious  pleading;,  and  on  this  basis  of  senten- 
tious, chauvinistic  historiograjjhy  innumerable  German 
authi.irs  have  since  aspired  to  impress  these  teachings  on 
the  Gernum  people. 

The  central  idea  of  Gernumism,  Germany  s  civilizing 
wurkl  iiii>si«»n.  has  gained  an  enormous  vogue  in  popular 
literature.  That  it  is  the  Ciermanic  race  which  has  civilized 
the  wholr  of  the  mi»ilt  rn  \v»)rld  has  in  luost  historical  works 
become  a  fundamental  axiom.  I'sually  the  appellation 
"  Ciernumic  "  is  nuide  to  include  all  |)eoj)les  allied  to  the 
(itrmans  by  kinship  in  language,  such  as  the  Scandinavians, 
the  Hritish,  the  Dutch,  the  North  Americans,  etc.,  and 
everything  that  can  be  said  for  the  Germanic  peoples  in 
gent  ral  has  unhesitatingly  been  transferred  by  the  Ger- 
marusts  to  the  Germans  and  is  cited  as  a  j)roof  of  the 
(iernian  world-mission.  In  this  waN'  tluy  have  attempted 
to  idtiitify  with  (iermany  the  culture,  literature,  and 
history  of  the  leading  Kurojxan  States. 

Thus,  for  instance,  the  ceU-brated  Danish  nliNsicist, 
H.  C.  Orsted,  is  ref<rred  to  in  a  popular  eneyeIop;edia  as 
fin  Hrhi/rrtuti  Ihutsclur,  although  h<-  was  born  at  Hud- 
kjobing,  in  Langeland  (Demnark). 

In  his  wt)rk  on  Tlie  Spirit  <if'  t/ir  (uitnun  Stock  (1S.')1>) 
Nagl<r  suid  :  '"  The  (H-rmanic  |)art  of  the  world  repr*  sents 
the  bright  side  of  history,  the  non  tJermanic  part  the 
ni^ht  of  barbarism.  The  sj)iritual  nature  of  Germanism 
has  made  it  the  standard  bearer  of  Christianity.  Kuropean 
morality  depends  on  the  preservation  of  the  (hristian- 
(iernianie  spirit  and  on  the  poUlinil  jxrucr  af  litnimnn." 
Kirehhoff  (leej.'ired  in  a  lecture  (1S.">'.>)  that  "civilization 
and  (iiri^t  i;iinty  are  unt  hinkal)l<'  without  the  (iermans." 
Thus  it  is  (iermanism  which,  as  the  Lard's  citnstn  instru- 
nunt,  is  to  sa\  e  the  decadent  world. 

()!'  course,  many  thmkitig  (ienuaiis  have  opposed  the 
<  liaM\  iiii-f  ic  and  mihfaristic  (le\  cloijuient  in  (iermanw 
aii'l     lia\(  ,    hk(      Kant.    a(l\oeat<(|     a     hbi  lai    and     pacitic 


Rise  and  Significance  of  Germanism      45 

policy  jind  been  animated  with  humane  and  international 
ideas. 

From  its  very  inception  the  nitiiless  policy  re|)rcsentcd 
by  Bismarck  met  with  opposition  from  many  eminent  and 
enlightened  men.  There  was  Ibrmed  in  IKdl  a  Progressive 
Party  consisting  of  members  of  the  Prussian  Diet,  a 
"  Fortschriltsj)artei,"  which  emancipated  itself  from  the 
old  liberal  Party  in  the  Diet  and  joined  the  Demo- 
cratic Party,  offering  persistent  and  strong  oj)position  to 
Bismarck  and  his  foreign  policy.  Amongst  the  foremost 
leaders  of  this  j^arty  were  11.  Virchow,  Germany's  greatest 
pathologist,  and  Eugen  Ilichter,  who  in  the  name  of  liberty 
combated  the  endeavour  to  form  a  strong  that  is  to  say, 
a  despotic  power  of  government.  Richtcr  was  all  his 
life  extraordinarily  active  in  the  propagation  of  his  liberal 
and  democratic  policy,  in  support  of  which  he  founded  the 
Freisinnige  Zcitung.  He  was  the  most  pronounced  and 
consistent  of  Bismarck's  opponents,  and  often  j)r()elaimed 
that  the  fall  of  Bismarck  was  his  aim.  The  Conservative 
chauvinists,  the  Gcrmanists,  accused  him  of  allying  himself 
with  all  anti-national  elements,  a  common  accusation 
against  all  who  entertain  democratic  and  cosmopolitan 
ideas.  The  celebrated  German  writer  and  historian 
Professor  G.  Kinkel  (sentenced  in  1848  for  republican 
and  seditious  propaganda  to  lifelong  imprisonment,  but 
who  succeeded  in  escaping  after  a  couple  of  years)  wrote 
in  1809  :  "  The  German  people  resembles  a  youth  who  is 
still  far  from  having  completed  his  self-education,  and  at 
that  age  it  is  particularly  useful  to  learn  and  thoroughly 
take  to  heart  foreign  opinions  of  ourselves."  Kinkel 
endorsed  to  the  full  the  comment  of  the  French  historian 
II.  Martin  as  to  "  what  every  honest  man  thinks  of  the 
miserable  jealousy  between  France  and  Germany,"  the 
obstacle  to  a  general  Eiu'opcan  confederacy  for  protection 
against  the  Eastern  peril,  or  for  the  thrusting  back  of  the 
Asiatics  across  their  natural  frontiers. 

Kinkel  further  declared  :  "  The  Germans,  and  more 
especially  our  patriotic  blusterers,  should  take  it  to  heart 


46         Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

whtn  a  calm  ami  al)K-  I'niu-liiiuui  shows  tln-in  how  ill 
this  j^Tted  of  (•(•lujiust,  as  ixrrcisid  against  Italy,  Poland, 
and  Denmark,  htt-onus  a  j)cu])lr  \vhi(h  has  not  tvcn  secured 
the  right  to  call  its  <>wn  Miiustcrs  tt)  acc-ount.  Ciirmans 
of  conimon  s(  nsc  and  education  enough  to  see  the  ludicrous 
asjxtt  of  a  campaign  of  political  trumpitings  will  enjoy 
this  IVeneh  criticism,  which  nevertheless  acknowledges  in 
a  friendly  spirit  th(  virturs  of  our  nation  and  i>ur  national 
temperamt  nt." 

Nietzsche,  at  the  time  of  his  scNcrc  criticisni  ul'  Richard 
\\'agn(  r  in  ■"  the  \\  agner  affair,"  observed  that  "  we  live 
in  a  reaction  'uithin  the  reaction  '"  from  "  a  ct  rtain  catho- 
licity of  sent  imi  lit  and  a  mania  for  everything  ultra- 
Ci«rman.  the  sd  called  ■national"  cult."  He  satirized 
■■Wagners  weakness  for  old  tales  and  songs  in  %\hich 
1(  arned  jtrejudice  has  (iisco\(r(il  sonuthing  Ciermanic  par 
tJctlUmt  \ve  laugh  at  it  today  the  reincarnation  of 
th(  se  ScandinaN  iaii  monstt  rs  with  a  thirst  for  exalteil 
sensuality,"  rti".  He  looked  foiward,  ho\V(\er,  to  the 
end  of  the  <,ra  of  national  wars  and  ultramontane 
martyrilom. 

.Mo<ii  rn  (leriiiati  historians  ha\e  elalxjrated  the  Ger- 
manistie  ideas.  The  most  famous  of  them  is  'I'reit  sehke, 
prof(  ssor  and  edit  or  oi  /'/(7/.s  ^  /.s(//<  .1  (ilnhitt  In  r.  and  historio- 
grapht  r  to  the  .State  of  I'l-Ussia  ;  he  showed  himself  to  he 
an  ard<  lit  ehampi<pn  of  the  st  ri  iigt  h<  ning  ol  CJermanv  s 
unity  (althoiiijli  jiiinsi  ll  of  Sla\-  origin)  and  of  a  |iowerful 
(io\  I  rnni'  lit .  \\>  \sas  a  passion.iti  patriot,  or.  in  other 
Words,  a  sjMciiic  I'lussian  chaii\inist  and  op|ion<nt  of 
LiIk  rahsm.  He  eri  ati  d  a  scho<il  of  (l(  rman  world  powt  r 
pohey  (  Mm  litjX'lilih)  and  L:ain((i  many  adh'iiiits.  fhroii^>h 
wh'iiii  hi-  ha>  e\.  icjNi  d  a  sinr-t-  r  mlhii  nii    on  prt  s.  nt  da\' 

thoUL'ht. 

.\<eor(hn:_'  t  o  Tr,  it  N,hke.  "The  .state  is  paramount  in 
th<  eoinmuiiits  ;  outside  it  n^thuiL!  <\lsts  m  the  World's 
hrtoi\.'  Tlie  .St.ite  must  he  (\ehi^l\(.  s(  h'  eolit  allied, 
and   "this  exclusive  .State  is,  as   MaeliiaxeUi   was  the  lirst 


Germanistic  Dreams  of  Greatness  47 

to  rccognizo,   in  its  iiinoriuost  essence,   pozmr.     To  safc- 
guard  its  j)ower  is  tlie  highest  moral  duty  of  the  State," 

According  to  this  dictum,  international  treaties  are  not 
binding  longer  than  the  State  finds  convenient,  and  tlie 
binding  nature  of  international  la-vs  is  not  admitted  ;  the 
State  cannot  bind  itself  to  abide  by  them.  The  law  of 
nations  is  thus  set  aside  by  Treitsehke,  as  well  as  by  the 
German  Empire  if  its  statesmen  agree  with  Treitsehke  — 
as  they  seem  to  do.  This  carries  us  back  to  the  point  of 
view  of  the  ancient  Germans  :  to  disregard  and  to  disown 
the  binding  nature  of  treaties  {cf.  p.  20). 

One  of  Treitschke's  most  celebrated  pupils,  General 
IJernhardi,  in  his  work  entitled  Germany  and  tJie  Xe.vt  War 
(1911),  expresses  the  same  views  regarding  Germany's 
cultural  superiority  and  world-mission  as  the  earlier 
Gcrmanists.  Thus  he  says  :  "  We  now  claim  our  share 
of  the  riches  of  this  world,  having  for  centuries  reigned  in 
the  domain  of  the  mind  aloney  He  speaks  of  "  the  future 
which  Providence  has  intended  for  the  German  people  as 
being  the  foremost  cultural  nation  in  history."  And  he 
adds,  as  an  incentive  to  war,  that  defeat  in  war  "  would 
throw  us  back  for  centuries  and  would  shake  to  its  very 
foundations  the  influence  of  the  German  mind  in  the  world 
of  culture,  and  thus  hamper  the  progress  of  humanity  in 
its  healthy  development,  for  zchich  the  Gernmn  element  is 
a  necessity.'" 

Again,  in  recent  years,  the  Germanistic  ethnograj^hcrs 
have  taken  up  arms  to  proclaim  the  superiority  of  the 
Germans.  In  an  article  on  Die  Urheimat  der  Indoger- 
manen  ("The  Cradle  of  the  Indo-Germans ")  in  the 
Mannus,  1914,  Dr.  K.  F.  Wolff  extols  "  the  nationally 
(volkisch)  minded  who  gladly  strive  for  the  coming  period 
of  greatness  and  believe  in  the  world-dominating  future  of 
the  Germanic  race''  in  contrast  to  "the  cosmopolitans  of 
golden  or  red  internationalism  who,  enfeebled  by  material- 
ism, long  for  eternal  peace  and  universal  equality  and 
detest  nothing  so  much  as  the  race-conscious  German, 
filled  with  the  ideals  of  the  ancient  Germans"  c})ic  period." 


18  Before,  Dukinc,  and  Aitek  1914 

The  natinnally  iiiiiulrd  (thf  chauvinists)  rejoice  in  the 
"  martial  ideals  of  supremacy  of  the  Indo-Gcrmans  and 
h<'j)i-  with  exultant  hearts,  eajjer  for  the  hj^ht,  that  the 
mantle  of  Licnnancntxnn  will  fall  on  the  shoulders  of 
l)i  utschtiun,  when  in  time  the  racial  pulse  of  two  thousand 
years  a^o  will  once  mi>re  throb  throu^di  Europe  from  the 
over-p«>j)ulated  shores  wasjied  by  the  North  Sea.  They 
rej/ard  nortlu  in  I-lurope  as  the  only  j)ossihle  lH)me  of 
this  raci-  of  lil'iftdf  j)(ilrician.s." 

"  The  ensmopolitans/'  says  Wolff.  '"  shudder  at  the  mere 
mention  of  the  word  'race"  and  know  not  whether  they 
are  to  threaten  or  to  ft  ar,  to  deride  or  to  abuse."  "  To 
them  there  is  no  race,  no  people,  nothin;,'  but  hunum 
creatur<s."  Wolff  further  says  that  '"  Amonir  thinking' 
pi  opie  |)olitieal  conviction  must  rest  on  a  scientilic  basis 
that  is  to  say.  al)ove  all,  on  knowledge  of  the  history  of 
ci\i!i/.at  ioii  and  racial  theory;  and  the  North- luirojxan 
origin  of  thi-  Indo  (iermans,  the  fa\t)ured  Indo  (iermaiun- 
tum  of  the  (itrmanie  race,  and  the  independent  growth 
and  drveJopiiKiit  of  Nort  h-I"",m-opean  culture  occupy  the 
fori  most  place  in  the  minds  of  all  nationally  thinking' 
(it  rmans." 

'J'hcse  hi;:h  tlowii  ;iiid  boastful  i  ffusions  of  \N'olff's 
W(  re  inspired  by  his  jia\in{,'  read  a  work  of  (|uitc 
the  oppe.site  tone  by  Dr.  S.  Feist  cntitltd  Kitltur,  Aus- 
hrtiiint^  utul  Iltrkunjt  (Ur  J tuhif^crnunun  (lUl.'i),  in  which 
the  lattt  r,  mdiamjMied  by  all  these  Ciermanistic  eoiu\its, 
sujiported  the  \  iew  taken  by  so  nuuiy  historians,  that  the 
cradli-  of  the  Indo  IjMdpean  race  lay  soniewhen-  in  Central 
Asia.  In  iii\  own  Ilistmij  aj  CI:  ili::titinfi  I  lia\e  also 
ad\ane(d   IIm    r(  asons  which  su|iport   this  \  Ku  . 

i-'ti-t  arid  oIImts  lia\  in;:  attnbufid  the  assumption  of 
tlir  norfhiin  oii;jin  of  the  Indo  (Iermans  to  ndlinniil 
.-I  nitii.  Wolff  calls  this  an  un\\'>rtliy  reproach,  and  eonpli  s 
his  e.i[iiiii<nt  with  the  snrprjsinif  d(  clarat  ion  that  the 
I  lit  I, ti. la  111  |.ir  tli<-  abo\-e  t  1m  or\'  had  spriiii;^'  from  a 
i'U'jnrj  /■./  ii  Nt:i  t  ntutjttinf}  of  llic  '.lurid  that  Is  to  say, 
oil.,  tl.iii^'  (piit(   forei^ui  to  scientitic  ethnorrrjiphic  research. 


Germanistic  Dreams  of  Greatness        49 

This  mundane  theory  is  by  no  means  new  -it  is  the  old 
chauvinistic  Germanism  of  Hegel  :  "  The  theory  of  Euro- 
pean origin  helps  us  nationally  minded  Germans  to  realize 
that  we  are  blood  of  their  blood,  over  whom,  as  Alexander 
V.  Puz  said,  '  lay  the  dewy  freshness  of  Paradise.'  It 
promises  us  on  the  threshold  of  the  next  double  millennium 
a  new  epoch  dimly  discernible  behind  a  lowering  war  cloud  : 
ilic  German  era  !  " 

"  Dcr  schreckliehste  der  Schrecken  isl  dcr  Men.sch  in  scinem 
Wahn,''  said  Schiller. 

There  is  something  utterly  senseless  in  certain  German- 
ists'  concej)tion  of  Germany's  influence  on  culture  and 
the  legitimacy  of  her  striving  after  power.  The  Geriiuuis 
have  become  "  God's  chosen  people,"  are  better  than  all 
the  other  nations,  are  more  worthy  to  live  and  propagate 
than  others.  It  is  a  chauvinism  without  parallel  in  the 
world's  history.  It  is  a  collective  megalomania  of  a  certain 
section  of  the  German  nation,  particularly  of  some  of  the 
patriots.  This  Walin  has  often  been  exploited  to  distort 
the  truth,  to  organize  falsehood,  and  to  legitimize  the 
insolent  breaking  of  treaties  -the  foundation  on  which 
rest  the  laws  of  nations  and  peace  — as  soon  as  the  interests 
of  the  German  Empire  demand  it,  and  in  dutiful  obedience 
to  the  teachings  of  the  modern  Germanistic  masters  : 
Bismarck,  Trcitschke,  Bcrnhardi,  and  others.  It  is  on 
these  grounds  that  Germany  is  feared  and  has  so  many 
enemies  among  other  nations,  who  by  no  means  shut 
their  eyes  to  the  real  merits  of  the  Germans,  and  admire 
Germany's  great  thinkers,  scientists,  composers,  etc. 

Germany's  quantitative  greatness  is  claimed  as  synony- 
mous with  superiority  in  all  spheres.  "  Deutschland, 
Deutschland  iiber  Alles  "  has  been  sung  so  long  that  the 
people  believe  that  no  country  can  compete  with  Germany 
and  that  the  Germans  are  the  foremost  people  on  earth  - 
God's  chosen  people— and  that  therefore  tliey  will  be 
allowed  to  rule  the  world,  to  oust  other  peoples  from  tlicir 
inheritance,  to  conquer  and  absorb  as  many  adjoining 
regions  as  possible. 

D 


50  Before,  During,  and  Apter  1914 

It  follows  inevitably  that  a  people  taught  assiduously, 
(Iccadf  after  deeade,  by  its  phil<»si>phers  and  teachers  that 
the  (iennans  are  the  climax  of  history  and  the  greatest  of 
hinnan  ract^.  nuist  stri\e  to  o<H-upy  in  the  political  and 
economic  world  the  role  to  which  it  is  iiititled  — to  wit, 
that  of  teachcrN  and  leaders  of  the  Kss  gifted  or  degenerate 
nations.  The  (pitst  of  widened  power  by  conquest  of 
their  smaller  or  weaker  neighbours  is  a  corollary  of  the 
fundam(  ntal  idea  of  (iermanisin.  Out  of  it  arose  the 
desire  fi'r  \nnty  and  a  strong  world-compelling  Empire 
l)in<ling  all  (ierman  peoples  togetht  r.  In  this  wisi-  Euro- 
]»e;in  sujireiiiaey  was  also  destined  to  pass  to  (iermany, 
an<l  by  the  logic  of  excnts  Prussia  was  the  State  pre- 
ordain<-d  to  reali/x'  th<-  (iermanistie  dreams  of  greatness. 

It  Is  a  pity  that  the  far-sight((l  Kant,  who  died  in  ISOK 
did  not  Ii\i-  a  t"i  w  decades  later.  With  his  |)rincij)les  i>\' 
ecpiit  \-  and  Ills  bi-oa<l  humanist  ic  out  lo(  ik,  In-  wttiild  certainly 
lia\e  cheeked  (iermaiiisiu  with  its  eliaUNiiiisin.  Kant 
supj)orti(l  «  nt  liu^Ki'^t  icaJK'  the  principles  of  the  Freni-h 
He\olution.  e\to|j.(|  republicanism,  and  disapproxcd  of 
the  alienation  ol  the  peoples  from  one  another  into  a 
narrow  nat  ion.-ilisin,  pli  ailing,  on  the  eontrarv.  tlieii" 
union  into  a  w  oi  Id  rinbracing  commonwealtli.  In  the 
midill'  of  thi-  (in  at  Hi  \o|ution  he  piiMished  a  ii  niaikable 
Work.  I'/iilnsnj/hic  .i  mil  HI,  III  fm  I'l  rjxtiK/l  I'hk,  (17'.t."»), 
and  s||o\\.(l  how  peace  might  rest  oii  a  iiniuii  of  frrr  Stalts 
einli!  aciii','  tli<-  whole  of  Eulopi  and  rejiresciitcd  b\'  a 
jinnhntiii'  ( 'nii^n  •->.  Tln'  lir^t  conditiou  was,  howexcr, 
that  all  .st.ife^  should  be  republican,  tor  whilst  ,'i  king  li.as 
littli  li>-.itation  ill  declaring  war.  a  deniocraex  will  l;o  to 
LfT'-.-if  j.  n;jtli>  to  ;i\oid  it.  kiiowini,'  the  burdms  and  the 
suff'  y\\\<j  to  wliich   it    will   be  exposid. 

Xot  until  the  strixinu  for  riL'ht  .mil  justice  has  wi Med 
t  h'  nations  to^i  the|-  \\ill  a  n.il  eipiilibrium  make  its  entry 
m  int-rimtional  |iolitics  .and  repl.ace  crafty  calculation  ami 
till-  i»nniii>le  of  balance  o|   power  established  !)\    alhances 

•  '  ;id     eoi;nt  .   I     .llll.'l  lie.   s. 


Germanistic  Dreams  of  Greatness        51 

Patriotism  was  too  narrow  a  conception  for  Kant  ;  he 
wanted  to  embrace  all  humanity  in  a  living  sympathy. 
But  this  did  not  make  him  a  naive,  oj)timistie  dreamer. 
On  the  contrary,  he  knew  only  too  well  the  wtuknesses  of 
man,  and  might  rather  be  called  a  pessimist  ;  in  fact,  he 
went  so  far  as  to  attribute  to  the  human  raet-  "  Tlioilicit 
mit  einem  Liueamente  von  Boslu-it  verbunden."'  Kant 
contemplated  with  sadness  the  world"s  history,  in  which 
he  found  no  method  or  goodwill,  in  spite  of  apparent 
method  of  detail  here  and  there  :  '"  all  is  on  the  whole  a 
tissue  of  folly,  puerile  vanity,  often  childish  malice  and 
dcstructiveness."  He  also  j)ointed  out  that  the  ends  for 
which  human  beings  strove  and  which  they  often  regarded 
so  essential  are  in  themselves  mean  enough.  Worse  than 
that  :  in  pleading  these  aims  and  in  the  effort  to  attain 
them  they  try  to  do  each  other  every  conceivable  injury. 

To  Kant  war  was  a  blot  on  the  human  race,  and  he 
declared  that  the  greatest  misfortunes  which  befell  civilized 
nations  had  their  origin  in  war. 

No  German  philosopher  was  less  accessible  to  the 
Germanistic  militarist  cidt  ;  it  was  entirely  opposed  to  his 
view  of  life  and  irreconcilable  with  his  ethical  principles. 

Goethe,  Germany's  most  versatile  genius,  would  never 
have  countenanced  the  German  war  policy  and  chauvinism, 
which,  in  point  of  fact,  are  Prussian.  He  had  a  predi- 
lection for  Shakespeare.  I'or  everything  Frencli.  for  the 
classical  era,  for  Italy  and  the  East.  He  was  a  naturalist 
as  much  as  a  j)oet,  and  "  the  great  heathen  "'  who  was  so 
deeply  influenced  by  Bruno  and  Si)inoza  could  not  be  a 
party  to  the  Christian  Germanism.  He  admired  Napoleon. 
who  visited  Goethe,  of  whom  he  uttered  the  famous  words. 
"  Behold  a  man  !  ""  and  presented  him  with  the  Legion  of 
Honour.  Goethe,  whom  the  Dutcli  struggle  for  liberty 
and  the  Duke  of  Alba's  appalling  persecution  inspired  to 
write  the  drama  Egmont,  would  probably,  had  he  now  been 
living,  have  written  a  new  Netherland  drama  after  the 
German  ravages  in  Belgium,  although  it  would  long  have 
remained  unprinted  despite  his  glorious  name.     He  would 


.>2  Hkfokk,   DruiNi;.   and  Aftku   11^4 

not  Imve  found  t'a\i)ur  with  the  iiiirjlity  ones  of  }>rcsent- 
day  Germany,  although  hundrt^ds  of  thousands  of  Germans 
cvrr\'  Niar  make  a  j)il!,'riina;,'c  to  his  famous  honu*  in 
\V(  iniar.  If  only  he  had  h< en  ah\f  now  !  The  Great 
War  niiL'lit  not  th«-n  ha\c  turned  I-^urope  into  a  hell. 

N<  ither  Would  SehilKr.  author  of  licinll  tif  the  Xdlur 
hniils,  Dnit  Ciirlns,  TJif  Mnid  "j  OrLdiis-,  W'Wulni  Till, 
and  other  ina^tt  ipitces.  lia\(  ajiprovt-d  of  (ienuany's 
(•hau\  inist  ic  d(  !,'(  IK  rae\  and  ju'licy  ot"  N'ioh  nee.  His  whole 
eharaeter  would  ha\"<  re\olted  ai,'ainst  it.  He  was  always 
the  apostle  of  lil)eit\-  and  human  ri^jhls.  cndorstil  rej)uh- 
lieaiiisiii  and  was  (Kctid  a  l"r<  neh  eiti/.en  hy  the  (^mii'n- 
fii'H  .\(i!inii(t!i .  Schiller  woidd  j)rohal)l\'  in  these  daNs 
ha\e  writtf  n  another  drama  on  VV/e  7i'"/'/'( />.  The  st<»ry 
of  this  his  jiiitnur/i  <///;/>  is  peculiar.  The  youni,'  Count 
Carl  V.  Moor,  a  wi  11  lueaniuL:  and  industrious,  hut  im- 
petuous and  forceful  chaiael'r.  who  in  jiis  ln'other  had 
a  eru' I  I  ueiny.  wa^  dri\t n  1)\  the  hitter's  hasc  machina 
fious  t'«  t.ike  refu'j"  in  the  l^ohemi.in  foii^ts  with  a  hand 
of  follow  (rs,  w  here  tin  \    1-  d  the  lif(    ( .f  ■■  iiolijc  rol  (hi  rs." 

.\s  an  historian  .Sciulh  r,  with  his  nolij,-  <nthusiasni  tor 
riL'ht  and  ti-uth  in  the  li\i  s  ot"  all  nations.  w.Mild  ha\c 
op[  osrd  Tnitsehke.  In  his  sjihndid  <  ssa\  of  Uds  //(/vs7 
mill  -^u  :c<  lihi  >n  i'.mlt  slinlitii  nun)  V  u'nir^nl'ji  .^,}:iih!t' .' 
'17n!>)  he  shows  liow  human  pi-o;jr(  ss  has  d.  p(  nd( d  on 
till'  \'<wj,  coo|)(ratiitn  of  many  differ*  iit  factors,  and  that 
.■I  just  aekno\s  ledLUUf  nt  of  t  he  m(  lit  s  o|' .  .1  h<  rs.  as  .accoidcd 
l.y  .-i  philosophical  miinl,  is  essuitial.  He  hdn  \cd  in  the 
p.icitic  coII.-iIm '1  at  ion  of  the  rliff.  k  nt  nations  in  an  attained 
l'Uit'r>i  j', /!<,<!:  ".Ml  precediri;:  epochs  ha\i  lai»our(d  to 
hriii_'  into  111  in;,'  oiu"  Imnviu  centiu'N.  .  .  .  The  harriei-s 
which  ^uiKJiied  .Sfat(s  and  nations  Ii;i\c  hnn  di  inojishi  d 
.  .  .  A  Cosmopolitan  hond  of  hrothcrhood  now  wnif'-s  nil 
thinkim:  minds.  .  .  .  Thf^  Eurojjean  ronunumty  seems 
t raiii.'orm'd  to  one  preat   family." 


VI 

PRUSSIA'S  OPPRKSSION  OF  HER  POLISH 
SUJUKCTS 

What  dcociuracy  have  we  not  witnessed  in  German 
politics  since  Bismarck's  triumpiis  and  since  the  Bis- 
marckian  system  became  more  generally  endorsed  by  the 
rulinfj  classes  and  literally  dofjjmatized  ! 

Before  Bismarck's  time  opinion  in  regard  to  the  Poles 
was  quite  dilTerent  from  now.  For  instance,  the  Gtrman 
Diet  held  in  Frankfort  in  the  year  1848  rided  that  tlu'  (jnly 
solution  of  the  Polish  question  consistent  with  the  dignity 
of  the  German  people  and  its  real  interests,  was  to  })ro- 
claim  Poland  an  indci)cndent  State  !  The  Ckrman  poet 
llerwegh  appealed  to  all  German  peoples  to  combine  in  a 
war  against  Russia,  and  declared  that  "  there  could  be  no 
free  Germany  without  a  free  Poland,  and  no  free  Poland 
without  a  free  Germany." 

Bureaucratic  and  Bismarckian  Prussia  has  since  severely 
censured  this  appeal  for  liberty  and  insistence  on  the  rights 
of  nations  as  a  fantastic  folly. 

Prussia's  Polish  subjects  ])roved  themselves  in  the  war 
witli  France  in  1870-71  to  be  brave  and  loyal  soldiers, 
but  no  reward  came  their  way  (save  orders  and  medtds  to 
sundry  individuals).  It  seems,  on  the  contrary,  as  if 
Prussia  had  become  still  more  overbearing  towards  I  hem 
after  the  joint  victories  over  the  French,  and  the  pirstcu- 
tion  has  increased  rathtr  tiian  otherwise. 

''  You  Polish  swine  !  '"  "  You  Polish  ass  I  ""  have  bnii 
common   appellations   in   the  l-^ol'M;  ;)ro^'ine;s.    :iu<\    if   an 

53 


r>4  Before,  Dlring.  and  After  1914 

incinNtcl  jKUsant  nsi-nttd  such  trmtiiunt  from  a  jxrsoji 
in  authority.  Ix-  lie  but  an  (.Uiiuntary  .scho(»I  tcac-lur,  the 
scvirc  jHualtits  of  flic  law  \\\tc  promptly  visitiil  upt)ii 
him.  In  smh  casts  Prussian  ncwspajxrs  arc  not  slow  to 
niatc  how  the  |h  actal)lc  Ci(  rman  poj)ulation  arc  cxj)os(.(l 
to  the  jK  rs(  cut  loll  of  a  coaisi'  and  i^Miorant  mol),  indanicd 
hy  Catholic  fanatics  and  mutinous  a^dtatoisl  Hut  if  a 
Polish  d(  puty  lists  in  tin  Piussian  Dirt  to  prol(st  a^'ainst 
the  tr(atm<iit  of  the  PoK  s  hy  the  authorities,  no  one 
iist(  ns  to  t  h(  ■■  Polish  wailiuL"'-  and  the  House-  proceeds 
to  th<   ordt  |-  of  t  he  day. 

Th<-  a\ithoriti(s  lon^  exercised  shamcK  ss  jjh  ssure  at 
the  political  (Kctions  and  tt  rrori/.id  the  j)easants  still  of 
military  ai,'t  int(»  votiiiLi  for  lieiinan  candidates.  II.  Sit  ii- 
ki<NNic/."s  jH  asant  tali  Ihiittk  tlic  Triumphdnt  ^ivt  s  a 
harrowing  account  of  tlnsc  outra<j(s. 

The  \sholisalc  (  xpulsion  of  Polish  snl»j(cts  from 
Prussia  in  1  ssti  was  a  tyrannical  and  unjust  itial)lc  act. 
aiKJ  I  imu'  nt  (it  rman  jurists,  (it  lit  kt  n  amon^'st  otlnrs. 
(  xjir.  ss.d  f  h<  ir  disappro\al.  TIk  I't  wt  i-c  ni>  valid  rt  ast)ns. 
I'At  n  if  till  inttiition  had  l>i  «  n  to  pitXiut  tin  I'olish 
el.  ni' nt  fidiu  j^'ainin^'  an  asctndane\.  this  coultl  ha\c 
Iv  t  n  .lit  eft  tl  l»\  prohihit  in;j;  immi;irat  ion.  hut  could  not 
possihly  justify  ci  patridtidti  of  Poles  aftt  r  t  Ik  y  hail  Ix  <  n 
allowt  li  to  li\-.  in  Prussia  ami  had.  in  fad.  h)n^'  Ixcu 
domiciled   t  In  re. 

Russia  in  t  urn  did  not  fail  to  \  isif  lu  r  auizi  r  on  Prussians 
m    {{ussia.   who  \vt  re  sht.rtly  aft(  rwards  t  xjx  lied  in  lar^'c 

Iiumln  Is. 

"llakatisiii""  (■'  1 1.K.T."  -isiii)  is  tin  ;i])jK  Hat  ion 
di  ii\i  il  from  till  initials  of  tin  iiaiin  s  of  its  fountji  is.  Han- 
s' niann.  Ki  nin  mann.  and  'In  di  inaiiii  j.'i\in  to  ;i  lar;^'i 
lilt  ra  pat  riot  ic  socit  t  \'.  tin  "  ( )sf  mark*  n-\'i  it  m,"  di  seiihtd 
M^  a  si.cn  t\  for  promot  in;,'  a  (it  rni.an  spirit  m  tin  l\.istt  I'u 
proNiriC' s.  This  socit  t  \'  has  foi-  its  oltjcct  to  ui'j^c  t  he 
Prussian  (io\-i  I- III  in  nt  (as  if  it  \\i  re  ni  <•<  ssaiA  ! )  to  pt  rsi  cute 
Prussia's  polish  suhjeets,  to  iujuri  tin  III  in  e\i  ry  way  i)y 
d<|'ii\iii)j   tin  111   of    work,    to   clt.se    to   tlniii   all   aV(  nues   of 


Prussia's  Oppression  of  Polish  Subjects  5.'^ 

cconoiuio  activity,  to  wrest  their  native  soil  from  flieiii  \)\ 
purchase,  ete. 

Tlie  chief  founder  of  the  society,  Ilanseniann.  had 
previously  been  a  poor  official  in  Posen,  but  had  there 
amassed  an  enormous  fortune.  In  n  turn  it  stems  to  ha\c 
been  his  aim  to  reduce  the  Poles  to  destitution. 

Hakatism.  or  the  H.K.T.  Society,  was  foundeil  in  1892 
after  Bismarck's  retirement  and  when  C'aprivi  liad  Ix^comc 
Chancellor.  This  ejiansc  had  brought  about  some  improve- 
ment in  tin  condition  of  the  Poks,  and  their  relations 
with  the  (it  rnians  had  been  rendered  less  unbearabk . 
The  Ilakaiists,  however,  went  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Bismarck, 
at  Vjirzin.  and  at  once  received  his  blessing.  They  tried  to 
m:ike  t  In  ii'  countrymen  believe  that  the  Poles  o})pr(  ssed  the 
Germans  in  the  Kastern  j)rovinces,  and  that  the  Polish 
re|)ri  s(  iitat i\'(  s  in  the  Reichstag,  who  had  become  in- 
creasingly le)yal  and  often  voted  in  favour  of  the  Gove  rn- 
nu-nt  proposals,  eliel  so  designedly,  in  oreler  to  gain  ad- 
vantages fe)r  the  Poles,  etc.  This  incensed  the  Prussians 
gi'eatly.  a  feeling  of  reneweel  animosity  was  created  against 
the  Poles,  anel  the  object  of  the  new  society  was  eleeJared 
to  be-  "■  to  })revent  Polish  acts  of  aggressivene  ss  "  I  As  if 
they  hael  j)ower  to  commit  such  acts  !  By  '"  aggre  ssive- 
ness  "'  no  doubt  was  meant  that  in  spite-  e)f  all  elifheulti(  s 
the-y  refused  to  be-  annihilated  anel  had  instead  progrt  sseel 
in  all  (lireetie>ns.  thus  retaining  their  status  and  pre- 
serving their  nationality.  This  was  looked  u])e)n  in 
Prussia  with  much  elisfavour,  especially  as  the  Polish 
pe)j)ulation — numbering  nearly  three-  millions — jM'esented 
a  serious  e)bstacle  to  the  ele-sired  comj)lete  Germanization  of 
the  Provinces  of  Posen  anel  East  anel  West  Prussia. 

Hakatism  tluis  became'  a  State-  within  the  State,  and 
(liel  ne)t  shrink  from  exercising  a  literal  terrorism,  partly 
in  order  to  jiick  quarrels  with  the  Poles  anel  create  griev- 
ances against  them,  anel  partly  to  intimidate  such  Prussian 
officials  as  wished  to  do  justice  to  the  Poles  and  wlio  we  le- 
therefore  brandeel  as  enemies  of  the  Prussian  State-  I 

Everything,  literally  eierytJiing,  has  Ix-e  n  elone  to  uproot 


56         Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

the  Polish  ikiiunt  in  thiso  provinces.  Xo  ptiblic  offices 
are  r<.er  given  to  Poles  :  thry  urt-  txckidod  from  the  Courts 
of  JusticT,  the  postal  m  rvicc  ,  the  sciiools,  etc.  Polish 
jurists,  who  havr  practistd  for  (U  cadi  s.  can  no  lonfjiT 
occupy  any  oflicial  positions.  All  j)ul)lic  ofliccs  arc  filled 
by  Ci»  rnians  only,  and  railway  ollicials  must  also  Ijc 
Cirrmans. 

To  (i(  rmaiii/.«-  the  Pol*  s  the  (iovrrnmi  nt  has  now  madt- 
(i-  rman  instruction  cnmpul.sorif  in  the  sciiodjs.  Formrrly 
sch(»t>l  instruction  \\as  ^ivi  n  in  Polish  in  all  suhjicts.  hut 
the  US'  of  the  Polish  lauLfuaj^'c  was  uradually  restricted  by 
fri  sh  dt en  (  s,  tmtil  at  last  it  was  only  p.  rniittcd  for 
reli'^iowi  instniclinn.  Hut  finally  (IIX)!  )the  Pohsh  lan^uayc 
was  j)r()sciihtJ  ttifinh/,  and  the  chil(h"(  n  had  to  It  am  vwu 
thiir  ]ira\<rs  in  (it  rnian.  TIk  ri  upon  a  curii»iis  nuivc- 
lU'  lit  aros.-  :  t  hr  I'liildreii  struck,  t  h.  y  ri  fusrd  to  answt  r 
<pi-  stiotis  from  f  Ik  cat<  chism  and  to  r<  ad  tin  ir  ]ira\(  rs  in 
(i'  rnian.  This  strike  hi  came  l''  n^  ral  and  coiiipiisid  nearly 
a  himdr.  il  thousand  children  t  lirt)UL'hout  Posii.  The 
childri  n  \\<  vr  |)unished  not  oidy  hy  In  inu;  "  kept  in  ""  hut 
also  with  ciirporal  chastisement,  which  I'ous.d  intiiisi-  in- 
di;^'nation  throUL'hout  l*!uro|)e.  Tin  "  \\'r>  schi  n  ailair  " 
(I'.^ui;  Was  I  sjK cially  iioturious.  Afttr  harharous  castijjia- 
t  ion  of  a  crowd  of  childri  ii  at  the  (leintiitarv  scImmiI  at 
\\r.  scli.n.  a  number  of  mothers  forcid  tin  ir  \\a\-  into  the 
school  pii  misi  s  to  i)rot( ct  thtni;  the  i)olici  wire  c;dled 
in  .and  arrests  \\<re  mad<  .  many  moth(is  r( ceiNiriLT  very 
hai'^li  s.  lit-  lie.  s.  np  to  two  and  a  half  \(  ars"  p.  nal  servi- 
tud-  :  Prince  i:.i.i/.ivill  int .  rpellat .  d  the  Chance  11.. r. 
PiiiK-  ihi'  \<t\y.  in  tli<  (',<  rman  !{■  ichstaL'  upon  tin  subject, 
but  ti,  latt.r  treat(<l  th(  matt-r  liL'htly.  d.  claiinL^  t  h;it 
■■  I  h'  CMunt  I  y"s  leput  .it  ion  had  n<  it  sn!Ti  i'(  d  b\  tin  hk  .asnrt  s 
of  t  h"  \\i.  selnn  ollicials,"  .and  Couiit  1  .imburu'-.St  irum 
d'  f.  ndi  d  the  llM;^fijin^  nil  t  hod  of  the  (ii  rman  scli()oh 
ma  ^ters. 

Ill  I '.' I'J  tin  (  hancellor,  \<'n  Hui  low,  intioducid  in  t  he 
1*1  M.  I.  n  l)it  af\ramiic;il  ]V]\\  {<>v  roinpuhori^  rrpiDpritilion 
m  "id'  r  to  ij.  pii\e  the  Poles  of  tin  ir  holdin^rs.  on  t  h«    plea 


Prussia's  Oppression  of  Polish  Subjects  57 

that  "  the  Polish  question  in  the  question  on  the  solution 
of  which  our  country's  near  future  depends."  This  pro- 
nouncement was  held  by  Die  Post  to  be  a  very  just  one,  as 
demonstrated  by  the  unceasing  fervour  with  which  the 
"  Polish  danger  "  was  emphasized  and  diseussrd  on  all 
sides.  This  ftrvour,  the  paper  wrote,  must  not  be  abated 
until  the  Polish  danger  has  ceased  to  be.  But  it  will  take 
a  long  time,  and  "  particularly  ominous  for  '  Dcutsehtum  ' 
do  the  conditions  in  the  East  appear.  Germany's  ec^lonizing 
power  is  not  allowed  to  display  itself  tli(  rr  and  passes 
more  and  more  from  the  olTensiv'c  to  the  defi  nsivT.'" 

Some  -  Dr.  K.  Busse  among  others — wanted  at  one  time 
to  fouml  a  university  in  Posen,  but  others  including 
Dr.  E.  Stumpfe  -opposed  it,  as  they  feared  that  the  Poles 
would  soon  become  a  majority  and  create  a  fresh  arena 
for  national  unrest.  Stumpfe  declared  (in  his  Polcnfrage  und 
Ansiedelum^skommission,  1902)  that  the  "  Prussian  school- 
master will  not  succeed  in  overcoming  the  'Polentum,' 
but  will  instead  place  it  in  a  position  to  combat  the 
"Dcutsehtum."  The  more  we  promote  education  and 
culture  amongst  the  Poles,  the  more  dillicult  will  our 
struggle  against  them  become.  We  must  Germanize  by 
a  continued  wholesale  German  immigration,  othc  rwise  we 
shall  achieve  nothing  against  the  Poles.'' 

Just  as  a  thousand  years  ago  !  {cf.  p.  18). 

"  By  German  wholesale  immigration  we  must  make  our- 
selves the  real  masters  of  the  country;  we  must  extir})ate 
the  Poles  in  the  frontier  districts  whieli  they  inliabit." 

The  Germans  in  Posen  lead  an  isolated  existence  ;  they 
are  cut  od'  from  Germany  and  live  in  a  foreign  country 
where  they  are  not  liked.  Hence  they  arc  far  from  eager 
to  go  to  Posen.  There  is  no  upper  bourgeoisie  and  no 
opportunity  for  animated  cultural  intercom-se.  Those 
who  might  exercise  a  refining  influence  on  the  province 
hasten  away  as  quickly  as  possible. 

Prussia  has  gained  little  by  her  attempts  to  (it  rmanize 
Posen,  in  spite  of  the  many  hundred  million  marks  expended 
on    German    colonization.     The    Poles    are    regarded    as 


.'>S 


Before.  Dirinc;,  and  After  1914 


nuniH  s,  and  Ikim-  litt-rally  l>ni  ronV(  rted  into  sucli  by  tlu' 
brutal  tn  ;itiiu  nt  of  th(s<-  Prussian  subjects. 

Is  it  to  U  wondered  at,  tb(  ii.  that  the  whole  of  the 
eivili/rd  world  outsidr  Prussju  was  indignant  at  this  treat- 
nu  nt  of  Post-n's  I*<»lish  |)o|)ulation  ".'  The  tjreat  Polish 
writ*  r  II.  Sit-nki*  wie/.,  to  whom  Swi-den  awarded  the  Nolxl 
Vri/A-.  has  a|ij><  al((i  to  t  lu  forum  of  KurojKan  opinion  in  the 
mattir  of  Pru^^ias  triatiiu  nt  of  her  Polish  subjects,  and 
r<((i\((|  r<  j)li(  s  of  \aiyin^  jini/th  from  'I.'ii  well-known 
|x  i"^i>ns  in  all  count  ri(s  of  l-'auoix  .  w  ho  may  !)<•  said  to  stand 
for  iiumani  IK  ss.  ((hieation.  ju'^tici.  and  truth.  .Ml  ex- 
|»ri  ss(  d  t  h(  ir  abjioirc  lur  of  Prussia's  conduct .  and  the  replies 
till  an  I  iiormous  N'olumt  of  'JM'J  paL'<  s.  which  Simkicwicz 
j)id)IiNlH(l  uiidt  I-  the  title  Priissf  tl  P()ln<iiii\  tuqutit'  initr- 
tuilinndli'  (I'.Mi'.t).  ■' 'I'his  is  now."  lie  cftmnunts.  "no 
loni,'(  r  a  dispufr  Ixtwttu  tin  i'mssjaii  nlra  and  a  f(  \v 
million  Pol-  s.  I  lilt  Im  t  ui  <n  that  idea  and  t  he  out  ra^cd  con- 
ici<  iici-  of  ;dl  huuMiiit  w  Tlir  nobli  st  ri  pri  s(  nt  at  i\(  s  of 
all  n.itioiis  lia\c  L'i\'n  tlitir  \(  rdict  in  tin  liist  instaiict. 
and  till  fiifiii-.  iiiii-^t  pronounce  jud«_'iiit  nt  in  tlu  hiu'lirr 
mstahci  s  I 


VII 
THE  DAXO-GEiniAX   WAR  OF  180^  :  BISMARCK'S 

maciiiavellism  :  prussian  oppression  in 
sciileswk; 

C'oNTi'SioN  rc'ifjncd  tlirouglioiit  the  German  states  in  tfie 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  eentury. 

It  was  tlie  imtenable  condition  of  Austria's  internal 
situation  which  determined  the  German  policy  of  that 
country.  The  Germanizing  centralization  system,  which 
had  long  Ixen  aj)plied,  could  not  hope  to  overcome  the 
resistance  of  the  other  nationalities,  more  especially  of 
the  Hungarians,  without  a  very  close  imderstanding  with, 
hut  a  decided  hegemony  over,  Germany. 

It  is  a  remarkable  thing  that  we  now  hear  so  n^uch  in 
Germany  of  Germany's  "organizing  power,"  of  Germany 
having  "'  discovered  the  fact  of  organization  and  her 
consequent  right  to  (iermanize  the  world  "'  (Professor 
Ostwald)  ;  yet  it  is  only  quite  recently  that  Germany  has 
displayed  this  organizing  ability.  Diu'ing  the  greater  part 
of  the  nineteenth  centiu'v  literal  chaos  reigned  in  Cicrmany. 
The  s])irit  of  strife — just  as  it  had  done  among  the  Gothic 
peo])les  of  antiquity  when  they  sought  fresh  homes  in 
Roman  territory  divided  the  people,  the  States  were 
unable  to  agree,  the  old  German  Empire  tottered  on  its 
foundations,  and  the  princes,  like  the  peo})le,  strove  as 
efl'ectively  as  possible  to  frustrate  all  elTorts  towards  unity 
and  freedom.  The  antagonism  between  Austria  and 
Prussia  was  particularly  marked,  both  striving  for  hege- 
mony, and  the  tension  ])etween  them  grew  imtil  well  on  in 

.■)1» 


60  Befohe,   Dlkinc;.   and  Aktek   1914 

the  sixtit>,  when  the  confusion  readied  its  climax  Then 
at  last  canie  the  Schk swig-Holsti  in  troubKs.  which  gave 
Prussia  an  ojij^i. It  unity  fur  the  actiw  intervi  ntion.  whtreby 
she  hojh  (1  to  gain  the  upjnr  hand. 

Tlu  long  stniggj.  for  Scjil<  swig- Hoist  (in  tin  belt-noire 
of  stall  siiK  II  and  j)ul)licists  which  was  diu-  to  i-oinplicated 
(ju.  st  i(.iis  of  succ(  ssioii  and  the  dilh  r<  nt  natit)nalitirs  of  the 
iiilial>itaiit  s.  1,(1  aftt  r  I'rcdc  rick  Nil's  acc<  ssion  to  t  he 
D.mish  throne  (.January  ISIS)  to  the  formation  (jf  an  in- 
surrectionist party  with  the  I'rincc  of  Augusten!)org-Nf>ir 
at  its  ht  ad.  Ilis  l)i(itlnr,  tlic  l)uk(  of  Augustt  nl)org, 
dir.ctcil  t  hi  \\!i(»li  (  nil  rj)risc-  from  Hi  rjin  and  n  c-i  ived 
siippoif  fioin  the  King  of  I'russia.  The  party  wanti d  to 
d't.ieh  t  hi  Duelii' s  from  1)(  nmark.  and  sueci  i  ded  in 
hrinu'iiig  a  di  put  at  ion  in  loic  t  h<  (•<  rman  Dirt  at  I'rankfort. 
di  iiiaii'liiiL:  that  Scidt  s\\  jg  should  l>e  incorporat  i  d  in  tin- 
(i(  rman  (  onfi  d'  laev.  Id  :chl(}i  i!  /mil  nrirr  hiloir^td.  as  had 
Ixin  tin  cas,  with  Hoht.  in.  The  i'x  rmanists  in  (i.  rmany 
w< T'  at  t  his  t  inii  liusy  addr*  ssjn^  so  (^dlid  claims  of  just  ice 
to  of  h.  r  nations  in  oidi  r  to  i  nfoicc  tin  ir  l>i  inu  acei  ptrd 
liy  t  hi  i'rankfort  Diit.  'l"o  Seldi  s\\  ii/.  -uhith  Imd  iil:i.tii/s 
bun  (I  h.niisji  rniinhi/.  (i-  rmaii\  iiad  no  claim,  Itut  ii'  \i  r- 
tli'l'ss  if  was  attimjitiii  Ity  the  j)liilologist  (irimm  to 
justify  t  h<  a'jitatioii  for  annexation  on  ancient  liisforical 
grounds.  'I"!ius  if  was  pointid  out  th.at  1  loo  yi  ars  pn  - 
\ioMsly  .Intlaiid  had  a  population  of  (iofhs.  AnL'l<^.  and 
.Suit.iiis,  wiiich  liad  Ik  •  ii  dri\in  out  l>y  flu  Dains,  wlio 
h.id  attack'  d  Ih.  m  from  flic  north  I 

I'r.  d'lick     \d  i     of     I)i  nmark     th'i-cupou     dicr.  i  d     that 
lIokliHi     should     I((«i\(      a     s(J)alal(      (ioNiinunnf     as     an 
Hi'l'  p'  re  !>  lit     Stall      foriuing     jiart     of    the     (iirmau     (Hn 
f' d'  r.icy,   hut   Ijial    Schh  sw  i^'  should  l»c  insi  par. 1 1  iK    umt'd 
\'-ith   1  )■  niM.irk.       In   1  S  JS  flic  disj)utc  culminat'  d  m  ,i  war 

".'■iiich  I.i-t.d  two  \iars  Willi  the  iusurii  ct  lonist  pall\' 
Ml  tie  I)uch\.  assisted  hy  Prussian  .and  ol  h.  i-  I.;  rman 
ti'op.,  whd-l  .S\\.  di  n  .and  \orwa\  s,  nt  an  .iini\  to  I),  il- 
ia 'ih  ^  as  istaiiii  and  an  .\us|n.in  .aims  hk'xsisi  suj)- 
i'oit.    i    ti'      D.m-s.      .\ft<  r    \.ii\ing    fortunes    f  h'      Dams 


Dano-German  War  of  18C4  61 

finally  proved  victorious  in  the  battles  of  Istcd,  Mysunde, 
and  Frcdriksstad  (1850). 

At  a  conference  in  London  in  1852  the  (in  at  Powers, 
joined  l)y  Sweden  and  Norway,  tliereupon  settled  the 
succession  question  by  granting  I'riiiee  C'liiistiaii  of 
Gliicksboro  (who  l3ecanie  Christian  IX)  the  rif^ht  of 
succession  to  the  entire  Danish  monarchy,  wh(  rehy  the 
union  of  tlie  Duehic  s  with  Denmark  was  definitely  ratified. 

The  year  before,  the  Duke  of  Auffust{id)or<;  liad,  on  his 
word  of  honowv,  J onnally  renounced,  on  hcJuilf  of  Ji'nnsclf  and 
hif{  family,  all  claims  to  the  duchies-,  and  by  way  of  com- 
pensation for  tiiis,  as  well  as  for  his  (states  forfeited  l)y 
his  treason  of  184S,  lie  received  from  Deiunark  an  in- 
denmity  of  six  and  a  half  nullion  kroner. 

When  in  18.57  the  Danish  Government,  in  ord(  r  to  make 
an  end  of  the  disputes  regarding  the  administration  of  tlie 
Duchies,  agreed  to  the  only  right  solution,  nani(  ly.  that 
Holstein  should  be  detached,  and  Schleszcig  should  be  more 
closely  incorporated  with  Denmark,  the  German  Confederacy 
threatened  "  military  execution  "  in  order  to  maintain  the 
union  between  Schleswig  and  Holstein.  and  renewed 
threats  to  the  same  effect  were  uttered  in  18(50  l)y  the 
German  Powers. 

To  create  a  new  and  separate  buiTer-State,  the  fictitious 
State  of  Schleswig-IIolstein,  which  was  to  belong  to  the 
German  Confederacy,  was  the  real  object  in  view  ;  but 
this  was  an  unjust  and  unreasonable  claim,  liaving  regard 
to  the  great  political  principle  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
nationality,  for  the  contemplated  State  would  be  one 
consisting  of  two  elistinct  nationalities. 

By  degrees  Prussia  had  become  better  and  better 
equipped  for  the  realization  of  the  ideal  of  Gerjuan  unity, 
and  became  about  the  beginning  of  the  sixties  a  military 
State  in  which  consideration  for  the  rights  of  nations 
was  practically  a  dead  letter.  This  degeneration  was 
due  in  the  first  place  to  the  ruthless  ''  Blood  and  Iron 
Chancellor."  Bismarck.  By  trickery  and  despotism  he 
overcame  his  opponents  in  the   Diet,  and   proelainud.   in 


62         Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

accordance  with  his  principle,  tlmt  might  goes  before  right, 
that  *'  Gtrmany's  unity  cannot  Ix-  foundid  with  plirasos 
and  niajoritiis.  but  oidy  with  blood  and  iron." 

Tliis  (iirrnan  Machiavtlh  thus  introducitl  a  ni  w  phase 
into  th(  pohtical  dt  vi  lopint  nt  of  th(  coiuitry.  Cii  rinanisni 
fxcaiUf  anythini;  l^ut  Christian  ;  in  fact,  it  may  Ik-  said 
to  liavr  Ik  »  n  a  (hal)oh('al  (i«  riiuinisin  whicli  was  now 
inaugurated. 

Denmark  was  tht  first  country  dtstincd  to  spill  its  l)l()i)d 
that  (i<  rman  unity  mi<:ht  Ik-  i-ncomi)asscd  and  that 
l*russia  mij^ht  Ixcoinc  tlu-  rulinfj  State  in  (•(  rmany. 

When  on  the  d(  ath  of  I-'red(  rick  VII  the  disputis  con- 
ct  rnin'4  tlx'  suee( '^sion  in  SehK  swi^  and  IIoNtrin  were 
rtviv((l.  tli<-  (|U<  stiou  of  a  r*  constitution  of  (i(  rmany  liki- 
wisc  eanie  to  the  fore,  and  tlu  r(  is  not  the  slitrht(  st  doubt 
but  that  the  crafty  and  unseruj)ulous  Jiismarek  int<  rft  red 
with  Sehl(  swit,'  Miid  lloKti  ins  alTairs  so  as,  by  an  easy 
\ietor\',/o  hri»<l  the  Durhirs  undrr  Pni.ssidn  rule,  and  thus 
<jn\n  the  ))r<stiLic  which  lu  lacked  in  the  Prussian  Dit  t  : 
h«r'-  the  lilx  ral  I*ro;.'r' ssi\  c  Part  v.  which  reprtstuttd  the 
humane  t(  rule  iici<  s  of  that  time.  (  iijoycd  at  the  Im  <:inmiiL: 
of  the  sixties  a  d( cided  asct  iidancv  and  opposeil  the 
eu()rmous  Armv  bud;^!  t  of  the  wai'  party  as  uiuu  ('<  ssary. 

The  Hall  Ministry  of  ]SC,:i  thouuht  it  mi^dit  achieve  a 
h.-ippy  solution  of  the  Schleswiu  (piestion  as  the  out- 
coiue  of  an  alliance  with  .Sweden  and  Norway,  which 
(  harles  W  coi)clud<d  with  Kicdt  rick  \'II.  A  ui  w  con- 
stitution w.is  ratified  on  Xoxcmlxr  l.'J.  1  sr.."}.  under  which 
the  ji.iiit  atlairs  of  the  nuinarchy  and  of  ScliK  swia  \\(if  to 
be  lianded  (i\(  r  to  a  I)i(  t  of  two  C'hambeis.  whilst  it  was 
left  to  the  future  to  decide  wlutlier  Holsteiu  should  join 
the  umoii.  ;ind  this  new  Act  \s;is  j)assed  hi/  Datirs  and 
Sch  l/sn  { i^rrs  j  (ji  ut  1 1/. 

\N'hen  Christian  IX  shortly  ;»fterw;irds  ascended  t  he 
throne  he  ;jave  his  assent  to  the  Constitutional  Act.  and  it 
\vas  accoidint^ly  called  the  Sir.nnbt'r  Constitution. 

Bismarck,  in  his  Reflections  and  lirnilniscenres,  p\d)- 
lislied  b\   his  secr«  tar\'.   lb  ir  Huseji.  himself  e\j»I;une(l  his 


Bismarck's  Machiavellism  68 

Machiavellian  policy  towards  Schleswig-IIolstriii.  He  re- 
marks amongst  otiur  things  :  ''  In  my  opinion  the  definitive 
solution  of  the  Danish  question  had  to  In-  sought  in  the 
acquiftition  of  the  Duchies  by  Prussia.  I  said  so  at  a  Cabinet 
meeting  directly  after  Frederick  V'lTs  death.  I  reminded 
King  William  that  every  one  of  ids  immediate  predecessors 
had  extended  the  boundaries  of  the  State.  I  invited  him  now 
to  do  the  same. 

"  This  pronouncement  of  mine  was  omitted  from  the 
protocol.  When  I  asked  Gelu  imrat  ("ostenohle,  who  was 
in  chargt>  of  the  protocol,  why  he  had  omitted  this  state- 
ment, he  replied  that  the  King  was  of  ()j)inion  that  / 
myself  xvould  prefer  to  see  my  remark's  omitted  from  the 
protocol.  His  Majesty  seemed  to  have  thought  that  I  had 
spoken  under  the  Bacchic  influences  of  a  dejeuner  and 
that  I  would  be  glad  to  hear  no  more  of  it.  But  I 
insisted  that  my  words  should  be  ))ut  in.  and  they  were. 
The  Crown  Prince  (the  subsequent  Emj)eror  Frederick) 
raised  his  hands  toxvards  heaven  ivhilst  I  zvas  speakimi,,  as 
if  he  doubted  my  sanity.     My  colleagues  remained  silent."" 

With  his  characteristic  lack  of  moral  sense,  Prussia's 
greatest  Machiavellist  failed  to  see  that  his  proposals  were 
so  at  variance  with  all  international  law  and  with  a  humane 
and  enlightened  ))olicy  that  his  hearers  could  not  but 
think  that  he  was  drimk  or  momentarily  out  of  his  mind  ! 
His  mania  for  power  had  quite  blinded  him,  and  he  seems 
to  have  rc^garded  with  contempt  the  C'ro\\  ii  Prince's 
a|)j)eal  to  heaven  in  this  unrighte(Mis  matter. 

But  what  is  the  good  of  talking  about  the  perj)lexing 
quarrels  over  the  succession  to  the  Duchies  ?  Their  con- 
quest had  been  decided  upon  by  the  Blood  and  Iron 
Chancellor,  and  he  skilfully  exploited  Duke  Frederick 
of  Augustcnborg's  conduct  when  the  latter  broke  his 
pledged  word  to  Denmark  and  claimed  the  thical  crown. 

It  is  curious  to  note  that  the  Germans,  in  dealing  with  the 
Schlcswig-Holstein  question,  obstinately  j)leadcd  certain 
old  clauses  when  they  were  to  their  apparent  advantage^ 
even   if  they   were    rmlawful — l)ut    ignored   others   wliich 


64  Before,  During,  and  After  11)14 

controvert t'd  tluir  contuitions  and  wliich  were  in  accord- 
ance with  laws  and  tnatits.  Although  the  Danish 
(iov<  rnnu  lit  hail  lx(  ii  »,'uilty  of  pravc  niistak(  s  aiul  oniis- 
siuns,  occasionally  (zivinj^  risr  to  inisundt  rstandintfs  and 
coiiiplicatinns,  it  cannot  Ik-  di  nird  that  the  (it  rinan  views 
with  It  i:  a  1(1  to  th(  Duclii' s,  (sjK  (ially  Schlt  sw  i^,  wiri- 
foiMidi  (1  in  tilt    main  on  fictions  of  l(j,'al  casuistry. 

AiuoiiLj  the  (iernian  States  there  was  no  unity  regarding 
SehU  swi;:  Ilolstt  in.  They  were  divided  into  two  camj^s. 
One.  to  which  the  central  States  helongtd,  wanted  to 
acknowledge  Prince  Frederick  t)f  Augustenhorg  as  Duke  of 
Schleswig-Holstein  in  sj)ite  of  his  father's  rciuniciation, 
and  to  cr<ate  a  new  buffer-State.  Finally  it  was  decided 
l)V  the  (imnan  C'oid'ederation  to  oecuj)y  Ilolstein  hy  an 
executi\-e  force,  and  an  army  of  I'J.OOO  Saxons  and  Hano- 
verians accordingly  invaded  the  country  without  nu-eting 
with  resistance. 

IJut  it  was  (juite  contrary  to  Hismarek's  j)lans  that  a  new 
hiifftr  State  should  he  created,  and  he  accordingly  induced 
.\ustria  til  cond)ine  with  Prussia  in  order  to  prevent  this,  and 
instead  to  tittarli  Deiuuark.  .\ustria.  however,  assented 
to  the  prMposal  in  or<h  r  to  keej)  a  check  on  Prussia  rather 
than  to  sn|tji(>rf  her.  Tiius  both  States  broke  the  fedi  ral 
law  which  decreed  that  the  minority  should  follow  t  he 
majority,  and  they  resolved  to  take  the  matter  in  hand 
without  considering  the  views  of  the  other  States.  Shortly 
afterwards  (Jamiary  '_'<),  l.S(U)  an  army  of  ;{'.•,(»()()  Prtissians 
and  'Jl. <><)()  .\nstrians  entered  Ilolstein. 

The  confusion  amongst  the  (Germans  in  their  attempt  to 
r( concih-  their  various  interests  now  became  greatir  than 
(  \-er.  \N  hat  were  th<-  Saxons  and  Hanoverians  to  do  ? 
Their  commanders  found  it  necessary  to  evacuate  the 
eastern  ])art  of  HoNtein  in  fa\-our  of  the  Prussi.ans  and 
.\ustrians,  and  otherwise  to  take  up  a  waiting  j)osition. 

On  being  challenged  to  evacuate  .Sehleswig  a  Danish 
piM\iiieeI  till-  Dan<'s  refused  to  do  So.  whereupon  the 
Pnis-ians  an<l  Austrians  touk  the  offensive.  The  Danish 
ariii\-    of   .'{.s, ."»()()    men    now     withdrew    to    D\  bbo|    and    the 


Bismarck's  Machiavellism  65 

island  of  Alsen.  The  Danes  defended  the  Dybbol  fortilica- 
tions  very  pkickily  for  a  long  time,  but  tjicy  were  finally 
stormed  (April  18)  by  the  Prussians,  who  were  now  for 
the  first  time  equijjped  with  brceeh-loaders  and  rifled 
ordnanee  whieh  could  be  mounted  out  of  raiifje  of  the  old 
Danish  smooth-bores. 

An  armistice  was  agreed  upon,  and  a  conference  of  the 
great  Powers  and  Sweden  and  Norway  was  held  in  London. 
Finally  it  was  decided  to  divide  Sehleswig,  the  purely 
Danish  part  of  whieh,  as  outlined  l)y  the  line  of  Flensburg- 
Ilojer,  was  to  belong  to  Denmark.  But  by  an  inconceiv- 
able act  of  short-sightedness  the  Danish  Government  did 
not  accept  this  proposal,  and  as  the  conference  thus  failed  in 
its  object,  the  war  broke  out  afresh.  A  few  days  later  the 
island  of  Alsen  was  evacuated  by  the  Danes  and  taken. 
This  brought  the  war  to  an  end,  and  Denmark  had  to 
accept  the  Peace  of  Vienna  (October  18G4),  by  which 
Holstein  and  Sehleswig  were  handed  over  to  Prussia  and 
Austria. 

In  Germany,  where  the  principle  of  nationality  had  been 
held  inviolable  as  long  as  it  concerned  Germans  under 
Danish  rule,  and  where  it  had  been  proclaimed  that  the 
war  was  waged  to  liberate  the  "  German  brethren,"  it  was 
now  found  quite  in  order  that  200,000  Danes  in  Sehleswig 
should  be  compelled  to  become  German  subjects.  Bis- 
marck, in  order  to  devise  some  semblance  of  a  right, 
directed  Prussia's  Crown  jurists  to  express  their  views  on 
the  question  of  the  Duchies,  and  received  the  farcical 
answer  that  their  rightful  rider  was  the  King  of  Denmark, 
but  that  as  he  had  (by  his  peace  terms)  '"  relinquished  his 
rights  to  Prussia  and  Austria,"'  the  latter  were  thence- 
forward the  rightful  masters  of  the  Duchies  ! 

Protests  soon  arose  in  Germany.  The  National  Society, 
at  a  meeting  at  Eibnach  (October  1864.)  stigmatized  the 
surrender  of  the  Duchies  to  the  tyrannical  governmental 
system  of  Prussia,  and  shortly  afterwards  a  committee  of 
thirty-six  members  of  the  Prussian  Diet  issued  a  rousing 
protest    against    the    annexation.     But    it    was    no    u>^e  ; 

E 


66  Before.  During,  and  After   1914 

might  had  to  go  hcforc  riglit,  and  the  old  German  sense  of 
justice  had  to  go  by  the  board. 

In  Sweden,  as  in  Norway,  the  sympatliy  for  Dtiimark's 
cause  had  brcri  wry  marked  ever  since  tlie  U-^umiing  of 
thi  war.  an<l  tlie  rtsintment  a^'ainst  Hisniarek  and  Prussia 
was  gent  ral.  (Iiarlt  s  XV  wanted  an  alhanc«-  with  Demnark 
f(jr  tlie  prottetion  of  SchK  swig  and  did  all  he  eoidd  to 
involve  Swe(l( u  in  the  war.  Hut  he  nut  with  opposition 
from  the  majority  of  his  Ministers,  who  from  motives  of 
prudence  opposed  his  (  iTorts.  The  Prime  Minist(  r.  Louis 
de  (ieer,  a  man  of  high  inttgrity.  h.is  give  ii  us  some  in- 
tt  resting  particulars  of  this  p(  riod  in  his  Mcfnoirs  (1802). 
The  Fort  iu'ii  Ministi  r.  Man<li  rstrom,  had  for  s»  V(  ral  y(  ars 
(  sj)ouscd  Denmark's  cause  and  stems  to  have  want< d 
Swed<  II  and  Norway  to  ent(  r  the  lists  as  !)<  nmark's  ally, 
since  (  harlt  s  W  in  .July  1S»;.'{  promised  Fri »!(  rick  \'II 
m  Halls  pr(  SI  nee  a  treaty  of  alliance.  This  trt.ity  was 
<lid\'  draftt  d.  and  (  harlt  s  X\'  diseusst  tl  it  in  St  pli  nil><  r 
1  S«i;i  with  St  \t  ral  of  his  Mimstt  is.  Hut  in  nut  with 
considi  rable  oj)ptisit  it)ii.  (iript  iistt  tit  t  mphasi/t  tl  with 
;,'ri  at  t  lixpit  nee  tli<  thniL'er  tti  Swttl.ii  tif  a  war  with 
(•I  rniaiiw  aiiti  ■■tli<-  King  was  st)  tagi  r  to  coiitiailiet 
liiiii  that   it    was  liillieult   ft>r  t  lu    ot  lit  rs  to  gt  t   a  wmti  m." 

l)t  (i<  I  r  and  t  he  Norwt  gian  Prime  Ministt  r  opptist  ij  tin 
til  afv  unit  ss  We  obtaiut  tl  the  assistance  of  at  It  ast  i>n'  of 
t  h<  (.r.  at  Ptiwi  Is.  Ill  tilt  t  ml  Kn^^land.  I-'ranct  .  and 
Hussia  wi  r-  iii\t.ki  li  tt)  e(.iii'  tt)  l)t nmark's  assistance  ami 
W(ir  pit  iiiiis(  (1  .S\vt  ti.  n  .1  mi  N't  irway  "s  ctp-opi  r;it  it  .11  if  tiitv 
iliij  so.  (ii.iilts  W  wdiiid  iitit  iiwi  w;i\.  lii<wt\tr,  but 
w.iiitfii  tt.  red<  I  III  liis  priiiiiis..  .1111!  tiiiii.  tlitiiigli  iin- 
sueei  ssftiii\  .  1  "  ft  in  1 1  a   in  w    MiMist  i\  . 

I )'    ( I.  <  r  w  ;is  t  if  t,]  HI  lit  ill  tjiaf .   w  li;it  I  \i  r  li;i  pjM  in  tl   in  tin 
tpiaiTiis    li  twtiii    l)i  imiaik    ami     t  h«     d    riii;in    st;itis    i. 
;jartliii^'    .Selil.  s\\  ij.;-lli,Isf  (  in,    nothing:   etiiild    l)(     ili.in     frMin 
i.iir  siile.      lie    wrtiti    :     "  (irrtiidnt/'s   rt<il   ittisDn   for  going 
til  wnr  wiis  /;^s7  of  ronijUfst  piMi    ami  simjil.  ,  ami  ;dl  ot  in  r 
piiti\ts    Win     iiiitliimj    but    isasj.iiisiif   tin    issin  .      A-.    I'l.r 


Bismarck's  Machiavellism  67 

myself,  1  still  believe  that  Sweden's  intervention  would  not 
iiave  avt-rted  the  war  or  given  it  a  European  eharactt-r,  and 
that  it  would  have  ended  in  preeisely  the  same  way,  only 
with  the  dilT(  rence  that  we  shoidd  have  Ixen  beaten  as 
well  as  the  Danes,  as  our  army  at  thut  time  was  very 
indilTcrently  e(iuipj)ed.'' 

The  adherents  of  Scandinavism,  who  had  hoped  for 
participation  in  the  war,  wire  very  bitter  against  the 
Ministry,  and  at  the  Ixginnint,'  of  March  18(54  tliis  resent- 
ment took  shape  in  riots  and  window-smashing,  esix-cially 
at  Mandcrstroms  i\  sidenee.  In  Norway  tiie  Seandinavists 
tried  to  induce  the  Storthing  to  pass  a  vote  of  sympathy 
for  Denmark. 

The  popular  sympathy  for  Denmark  in  the  other  two 
Scandinavian  coimtries  took  tangible  shape  in  the  dispatch 
of  a  number  of  volunteers,  including  some  ninety  officers 
and  twenty  doctors  from  Sweden,  I  being  one  of  the  latter. 
I  was  then  an  undergraduate  of  tAventy-two,  and  I  think 
that  the  other  volunteers  were  fired  by  the  same  con- 
viction as  myself,  namely,  that  the  Germans  had  no  right 
to  start  the  war  and  that  the  Danes  were  in  the  right. 
Personally,  I  felt  it  a  duty  to  help  my  injured  brethren 
in  a  struggle  into  which  they  had  been  forced  by  violence 
and  injustice. 

I  was  stationed  for  some  time  at  Augustenborg  Palace, 
then  converted  into  a  base  hospital,  and  was  posted  at  tiie 
first-aid  dressing-station  at  Sonderborg.  rigiit  opj)osite  tlie 
Dybi)ol  fortifications,  the  tlay  before  they  were  stormed, 
April  1  8.  The  scene  was  one  of  utter  desolation — battered 
and  smoking  houses  everywhere,  relief  parties  Inu'iying 
to  and  from  the  fortifications  with  stretchers  and  wagon- 
loads  of  wounded  ;  in  tiic  dressing-stations  white  faces 
and  blue  lips,  in  the  operating-theatres  a  literal  carnage, 
buckets  full  of  blood,  amputate  d  limbs  lying  about.  ga{)ing 
wounds,  and  through  it  all  the  thunder  of  the  Prussian 
guns  and  the  vicious  hissing  of  the  siiells  overhead. 
This  sort  of  thing  one  never  forgets,  and  it  makes  one 
think  of  ])olitics.  of  the  instigators  of  it  all. 


68         Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

The  Dano-Gcrman  War  was  not  calculated  to  strengthen 
the  Scandinavian  ftiling  of  kinship  with  the  Grmianic 
cousins  of  Gt  rniany.  On  the  contrary,  a  deep  antipathy 
grew  u{)  against  Gi  rniany,  or  ratlu  r  Prussia — that  is  to  say, 
against  lu  r  j)(>liey,  and  more  esixcially  against  ht  r  real 
leader.  Bismarck,  who  has  always  Ixi  n  disliked,  nay, 
hatid.  througliout  Seandinavia  on  account  of  his  doctrine 
of  brute  force. 

It  is  a  n  niarkahlc  and  paradoxical  fact  that  tlu-  German 
Em})irf.  founded  on  the  systematic  growth  of  Germanism 
and  thus  resting  on  the  princij)le  of  nationality,  has  itself 
violated  the-  rights  of  other  natie)ns  ;  and  the  expositions 
of  many  of  its  K  arnccl  chauvinists  have-  Ixen  a  mockery  of 
history. 

PrISSIa's    OrPRKSSION    OF    THE    SciILESW'IGER.S 

\V1h  II  fh<-  (i«  rman  fratrie-jehd  war  of  ISfiJ)  was  e  ndeel 
by  the  P(  aee  of  PragU(  .  with  Napolee)n  III  as  me(iiate)r, 
it  was  (1(  elded  that  Austria  slioidd  surrender  her  rights 
in  Se-li!<  s\\  ig-llolstt  in  to  Prussia.  At  the-  same-  time-, 
there  was  aelele-el  to  Artie-le  .')  e)f  the-  Peace-  Treaty  a 
elausc  to  tile  (  IL  e-t  that  "  llie  po])\ilaii()n  of  iJic  ttorlhrrn 
district  of  ScJiUsxciii,  •n.fien  bij  a  plebiscite  it  sfuiU  fuixc 
c.ij)rcssc(l  its  :cish  to  he  iricorporatcd  uith  Dcnrnark,  shall 
he  surrendered  to  that  country.  " 

Prussia  shortly  afte  rwards  (D(ee-ml)e-r  18()0)  pre)e-laimeel 
t  li<  iiH-orpeirat  ion  eif  t  he  Due-hit  s  e)f  Se-jilt  s\\  ig  .-iiid  Ile)lste  in 
ill  h' r  ii  ahii.  and  tin  D.uks  in  North  .St-IiKs\\ia  wt  re  tiius 
fore  (I  to  b(  eoliie    Pnissj.in  slil)j(  ets. 

Tiie  K iiinische  Zeilnni!.  in  1  .S<>ri,  esjtousi d  tlu  e-ausc  e>f 
t}i<  Ne.rth  .S(-lil(  s\\  ij.r(  IS  \(  I  y  <  Ui  rg(  t  ieally.  ;iii(l  sfidiiiily 
wrjj' d  that  Aitielc  .')  (pf  tlie  IN  aee  of  Pra^MK  should  Ix- 
r;irri«  d  out.  It  wrote-  .amon^'st  othir  things  that  "it 
W()iild  1)>  a  \\isc  and  st ati  smanhke  ae-t  to  ri  iiounei  North 
S'-lil  swig  vojuntai  ily."  .and  pointi  d  out  tiiat  "Prussia 
pidiiii^'  d  to  (Id  so  by  th(  P<  a(-i  of  Pi.-ilmk  ."  adding  :  "  We 
cannot   ((.neivf    how   aiiNonc   </<//<•  //<7/e:  c  t  hat    Piiissja  uill 


Prussia's  Oppression  of  Schleswigers     69 

leave  the  most  advantageous  peace  which  was  ever  con- 
cluded unconsummated  by  not  redeeming  a  solemn  ujider- 
<«A:m^' entered  into  under  the  eyes  of  the  whole  of  Europe  !  " 

When  the  Prussian  Diet  had  to  deal  in  December  1886 
with  the  question  of  the  incorporation  of  Sehleswig  and 
Ilolstein  with  Prussia,  and  when  a  committee  expn  ssed 
the  hope  that  Article  5  of  the  Peace  of  Prague  would  be 
deleted,  Bismarck  made  the  following  statement  :  "  I 
have  always  bten  of  opinion  that  a  population  which  does 
not  wish  to  he  Prussian  or  German,  and  which  has  unequivo- 
cally expressed  its  d(  sire  to  belong  to  an  adjacent  State 
of  its  own  nationality,  does  not  cojiduce  to  the  strengthening 
o/M<?  Pouter  from  which  it  is  striving  to  be  separated.  .  .  . 
I  consider  it  necessary  to  point  out  that  we  cannot  possibly 
regard  ourselves  as  released  from  obligations  entered  into 
by  the  resolution  of  the  Committee  and  of  the  Diet  ;  we 
must  honour  these  obligations,  but  we  will  do  so  in  such  a 
way  that  in  the  voting  which  is  to  decide  our  course  there 
can  be  no  doubt  of  its  voluntary  and  independent  nature, 
and  as  to  its  expressing  the  will  which  it  is  its  purpose  to 
elicit." 

Bismarck's  organ,  the  Norddeutsche  Allgemeine  Zeitung, 
declared  in  an  article  respecting  Article  5,  which  appeared 
in  the  spring  of  1867  and  which  was  assumed  to  express 
the  intentions  of  the  Prussian  Government,  that  Prussia 
would  allow  the  vote  to  be  taken,  but  not  until  the  popula- 
tion at  the  end  of  a  considerable  lapse  of  time  had  become 
familiar  with  Prussian  rule,  as  until  then  they  could  not 
vote  without  bias. 

What  Bismarck  and  his  organ  meant  was  that  '"  after 
a  considerable  lapse  of  time  "  a  large  number  of  Danes 
would  have  been  driven  out  of  Sehleswig  and  replaced  by 
Germans,  so  as  to  obtain  a  satisfactory  result  from  the 
voting.     But  events  turned  out  otherwise. 

Article  5  of  the  Treaty  of  Prague  was  deleted  purely 
and  simply  at  the  end  of  twelve  years,  during  which  time 
no  offer  had  been  made  to  carry  out  its  tcrni^;,  whilst 
nothing  happened  in  Sehleswig  or  Denmark  wliieh  eould 


70         Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

justify  its  nhropation.  The  promise  of  a  plebiscite  was 
withdrawn  in  a  convention  dated  Vienna.  Octolxr  1878. 
between  the  Citrrnan  and  the-  Austrian  EnijHrors,  and  this 
astounding  breach  of  a  treaty  was  ollieially  givt-n  the 
inolTensivi-  name  of  "  revision."*  This  aet  of  rileasi!i<j 
Wilham  I  from  his  obhiiations  iN  i-oiisidtnd  by  pohtieal 
authors  of  Hismareks  school,  such  as  l*rof»  ssor  W  .  MiilK  r. 
etc..  to  ha\c  Ih( u  Austria's  quid  pro  qHO  for  the  services 
which  th(  li(  rman  Ciovcrnnunt  nndired  that  country 
durinj.1  the  Oriental  crisis  and  at  the  Herlin  C'on^uvss  of 
ISTS. 

In  the  above  mentioned  "revision"  it  is  stated  that 
''The  stij)idation  in  this  treaty  [Treaty  of  Prague]  con- 
eerning  the  |)ossibility  (Modalitiit)  of  the  return  of  Scliles- 
wig's  northern  districts  to  Denmark  has  not  y(  t  bein 
carried  out."  It  is  made  clear  that  The  Gcnnmi  Emperor 
attachts  importuncf  to  the  removal  of  this  pos-sihiliti/.  and  it 
IS  furth(  r  ex|»laiiu  d  that  "  the  Kmperor  of  Austria  rt  alizes 
tln'  (liffirulties  which  stand  in  the  way  (»f  carryini:  out 
this  lifth  articji  ."  What  tlnse  «litlicult  i«  s  \V(  n  is  not 
explained,  and  could  hardly  \>v  exjjlaiiud.  masniueli  as 
till  \-  ijid  not  exist  urdi  ss  they  consiste<i  in  IIk  mortdica- 
tjou  o\(  r  the  failure  duiini,'  a  p(  riod  of  twt  1\(  vt  ais  to 
(ii  rmaiii/,<-  North  Schleswigin  s|)itcof  all  st  rat  aLi'iiis.  such 
as  scliodl  (•()(  i-ei((ii,   laiiLTuaije  coi  rcion.  etc. 

Till-  "r'Aision  ""  in  (pi'stion  of  thr  Pragui  Tnaty  was 
of  truly  laconic  brt  \it\'  and  consisted  in  .\rtiele  .")  Ik  ing 
di clari  il  tntll  (ukI  :  ()i(i  {niiy.\er  (tilti^keit  <>(Stt:.t)  I 

.Sueli  ■■  Il  \isi<  .ris, '"  in  ||i,  \-()eal)ular\  of  otlu  r  Ivuupi  an 
n.'itiiiii>.  ari  e.illid  <l(  .spalisin  and  brute  Jnrce.  and  it  is 
e<  1 1  ;i  in  t  hat  A  if  leje  ."»  ( .f  fin  Ti.  at  \(if  I'la'jUc  w.inid  joiej 
Sine-  lia\ '•  b' I  n  (■;irri«  (I  out  had  t  Ih  re  <  \ist .  ij  m  |-".iir(ip(  a 
\\>>\\>  iful  .Stat-  uhleli  eouM  c  nf(-l(<  tin  cl.inns  «,f  pdlitical 
ni'ir;dit\  .ind  watch  <.\<  r  IIk  riijlits  df  tin  small'  r  iLitioiis. 
Hut  I'l.iiK-i  w.as  \  .■ui(]uis|i(  d.  ;iiiil  I'lUssi.i  had  -.'aiiK  d  m 
sf !(  iiL't  li  dniniL'  till-  p:ist  t\\i|\c  \..irs  ;ind  kii<  w  that  no 
<itli.  r  nation  \\(.nld  daii  .  for  tin  s.ikr  of  t  h.  ■"  rtxision 
of     til'       l'iagn«      Tii.itN,     to     eliall'iiL''      this     ov»  rlx  a rinL! 


Prussia's  Oppression  of  Schleswigers     71 

military  State.  The  convention  of  October  11,  1878, 
destroyed  any  lingering  illusions  as  to  the  return  of 
Schleswig  to  Denmark.  It  ratified  the  annexation  as  u 
conquest  in  the  spirit  of  ancient  times  -that  is  to  say, 
without  regard  for  the  rights  of  nations,  nationality,  or 
historical  progn  ss. 

Bismarckian  {)ublieists  and  historians  have  vainly 
sought  to  make  the  world  believe  that  "'  great  joy  j)r(  vaih d 
in  the  North  Schleswig  distriets  on  publication  of  the 
convention,"  etc.  (\V.  Miiller).  The  Danish  Sehltswigers 
have  always  been,  and  are  still,  dissatisfied  with  the 
annexation,  as  shown  by  their  always  sending  Danish 
deputies  to  the  Reichstag  in  13(  rlin. 

When  ^Villiam  II  visited  Christian  IX  in  1888  news- 
papers threw  out  hints  as  to  the  fulfdment  of  the 
treaty.  But  the  whole  German  Press,  including  even 
the  Liberal  and  independent  papers,  in  touching  upon 
this  question  voiced  the  opinion  that  "'  Article  5  of  the 
Peace  of  Prague  may  now,  both  from  a  political  and 
juridical  point  of  view,  be  regarded  as  dead  and  done  with 
{Vossische  Zeitung). 

It  is  surprising  to  see  otherwise  sound  political  authors, 
such  as  Dr.  K.  Baumbach,  member  of  the  Reichstag, 
(in  his  Staatslexicon,  1882),  speak  of  the  dcKtion  of  this 
clause  "  i)y  agreement  between  Prussia  and  Austria."'  as 
an  accomplished  fact  without  commenting  on  the  obvious 
injustice  done. 

NN'hen  an  address  concerning  the  Schleswig  question 
was  presented  in  1880  to  the  Lilxral  members  of  the 
German  Reichstag  by  the  Positivist  Society  at  Stockholm 
through  the  present  author,  the  Frcisinnigc  Zeitung  wrote 
as  follows:  *' This  document  contains  an  appeal  to  the 
Liberal  members  of  the  Reichstag  to  agitate  in  order  that 
the  German  language  may  l)e  abolished  in  the  Danish 
Schleswig  Primary  Schools,  and  that  the  northern  distriets 
of  Schleswig  may  be  ceded  to  Denmark.  Tht  se  gentle- 
men might  have  spared  themselves  their  trouble  and  print- 
ing expenses." 


72  Before,  Dukinu,  and  Afier  1914 

The  Kolnische  Zeitung,  in  reproducing  the  above,  added 
the  following  comment  :  *'  This  presumptuous  demand 
from  foreign  jxace  league  memlxrs  would  hardly  have 
Ixen  submit trd  to  the  Gtrman  Lilx  rals  had  not  their 
rejK-ated  fratt  rnizing  with  PoK  s,  Guelphs.  and  Social 
Di-moerats,  tluir  hostile  attitude  towards  colonial  policy, 
and  tluir  quarrtls  with  liismarek  created  abroad  a  mistakt  n 
notion  as  to  tlu-  aim  and  nature  of  the  Cirrman  Lilx  ml 
Party.  The  (ierrnan  Lilxrals  must  onci'  and  ft>r  all  make 
it  tluir  rule  not  to  kt  their  iij)pusiti()n  to  the  policy  of  the 
Government  digtntrate  into  a  struggle*  against  the  vital 
interests  of  our  country  ;  they  will  ne)t  then  in  the-  future 
have  to  face  the  disgrace  e>f  being  taken  h\  foreign  enemies 
of  the  German  Empire  for  oj)i)onents  e)n  j)rinciple  to 
Germanistn.'' 

Tiiis  apprf)val  of  Ciermany's  ruthless  treatment  of  a 
cou})]c  of  Inmdre-d  thousand  Daiu  s,  whose  right  to  a 
plebiscite  on  a  qu(  stion  eif  nationality  was  ackne)wl( dgeel 
during  many  years,  and  of  the  Pr\issian  annexation  of 
Nortli  Schl<  swiu  ^\ithout  a  shadow  e)f  lijstorie-al  justifica- 
tie.n.  but  iiu  i(  ly  in  the  allem  el  vital  inte  n  sts  of  the-  (ie  rman 
Fath(  rland.  oidy  ilhistrate  s  the  elege  nt  ration  whie-h  fe)lle)\\s 
in  t  Ik    \\ak(   of  a  traditional  poliev  of  \  ioh  lU'c. 

Prottsts  against  the-  Sehleswig-llojstt  in  amuxation 
W(  r<  not  altogi  t  he  r  laeking  in  (ii  rniany.  alt  heuigh  t  iuy  w<  re- 
f'W.  Tlius  Dr.  V.  \\.  (ie  iTkcn.  (Uploniatist  and  i)re)f«  sse)r 
e.f  inti  rnarionai  la\\.  tiiid  to  pre  \(  nt  this  ine-e)rporatie)n. 
jiist  as  afti  r  t  h(  I)ano-(i(  niian  Way  he  eipjxtsed  IJisniarck 
in  London  on  tin-  Lnx' mbm-g  <iu(  stion.  No  wemdi  r, 
th(rif<.ri.  tliat  whin  Hi^niare-k  son;,'lit  (in  ISSS)  to  in- 
stitnf'  proci  (dinL's  against  him  for  his  |)nbhe-ation  of  an 
extract  from  the  l''.ni|><  ror  l-'ndi  rick"s  Diary,  showing 
the  l.'ittir's  sli;ir(  in  briiiL'ing  about  (iirmany's  unity,  his 
(Bismarck's)  ju(!;.'in«  nt  coni|'l<  ti  ly  fi-rsook  him  and  he 
t  ri-d  lirst  to  brand  t  he  (  \f  lact  as  ;i  forL'cry  and  aft(  rwards. 
\^  In  n  h'  fa  ill  d  in  t  liis  at  ti  mj)! .  di  elan  <i  it  to  bi  a  piifii.shdhle 
(ifirnrc!  \\i  wanted  to  crusli  his  (,M  oppoiimt,  \\lio  jiad 
.food     up     f"j     riL'lit     a;j;!nist     mit'li'-      (ntlkin     \s;is     most 


Prussia's  Oppression  of  Schleswigers     78 

barbarously  lodged  in  goal  pending  prosecution  for  Ihe 
majesU,  but  was  acquitted  by  the  court. 

The  Prussian  Government  has  ever  since  the  annexation 
of  Schleswig  attempted  a  systematic  and  ruthless  suppres- 
sion of  the  Danish  language  amongst  the  Danish  Schles- 
wigers and  has  persecuted  them  for  any  tokens  of  alYection 
for  their  old  country,  Denmark.  Many  of  then  have, 
therefore,  by  degrees  emigrated  from  Sehleswigto  Denmark 
or  to  America,  whereby  th(  ir  number  has  decreased  some- 
what since  18G4,  when  there  were  about  200, ()()()  of  them. 
According  to  ofticial  data,  there  were  in  1890  about 
135,000  Danes  in  Schleswig  who  were  subjects  of  Prussia, 
and  in  addition  about  30,000  so-called  "  foreign  "  Danes. 

The  German  language  was  introduced  into  the  Schleswig 
schools  in  1889  and  made  compulsory  for  all  subjects  ; 
occasionally,  however,  exceptions  were  made  in  favour 
of  religious  instruction.  But  the  Danish  language  is  not 
allowed  to  be  taught.  There  must  be  no  Danish  masters, 
no  families  must  engage  tutors — as  they  v.ould  probably 
be  Danes — and  parents  must  not  themselves  instruct  their 
children  !  If  they  do,  they  are  prosecuted  and  punished 
(with  a  fine  to  begin  with)  pursuant  to  a  law  which  says 
that  no  one  must  teach  who  lacks  "  moral  competency  " — 
and  this  competency  is  supposed  to  be  lacking  in  Danish 
parents  when  they  are  not  good  Prussian  subj(  ets  ! 

The  Prussian  Government  has  further  forbidden  parents 
to  send  their  cliildren  to  school  in  Denmark.  Guardians 
sending  children  to  Danish  schools  after  they  have  been 
confirmed  are  punished. 

A  German  song-book  {Liedcrbuch)  was  introduced  in 
1884  into  Schleswig  schools  by  an  order  of  the  Government, 
and  it  was  directed  that  the  school-children  should  learn 
at  least  twenty  of  its  songs  by  heart.  Of  these  twenty 
songs,  twelve  are  German  national  or  war  songs,  and 
it  may  be  of  interest  to  note  that  amongst  them  is 
the  famous  Preussenlied  "  ieh  bin  cin  Prcussc.''  But 
this    historical  inexactitude   was  not   enough.     The  song 


74  Before,  Dirinc;,  and  Ajter  11>14 

consisted  origiiuilly  of  five  verses,  but  for  the  Ix^nefit  of  the 
Schleswigi-rs  a  sixth  verse,  by  Privy  Councillor  Schneider 
(a  (it  rnian  iiiiniif^rant).  was  added  in  1S0*».  This  vt  rse 
runs  as  follows  : 

I'lwl  wir,  (lit-  wir  am  Ost  iiiul  Nonlnisre  iiK  Wacht  ^fsttllt, 
jjcstiihlt  von  ^^  <>^  untl  Wind,  wir,  die  Siit  l)iii>i>cl  <lur('li  dts  lilntes 
liandr  an  I*^<•u^^^^ls  Tliron  and  Volk  j;t  kttttt  sIikI.  wir  woll'n  nicht 
riickwiirt-s  schaurn.  lu-in  vurwiirts  niit  Wrtraiuu  I  NVir  nifrn"s 
luut  in  ulli-  Welt  hinein  :  "  Auch  wir  sind  I'nuascn,  xiullin  I'rcusscn 
acin  .'  " 

'V\]r  foll()Nvin<;  is  a  lit(  ral  prose  translation  of  this  V(  rse  : 

"And  We,  j)()st((l  as  sentinels  on  I^iltic  and  North  Sea, 
harden*  (1  by  wave  and  wind,  we  who  since  the  Diipprl 
fip.ht  ha\c  b<  (  n  ti(d  by  bonds  of  blood  to  Piussia's  thioiie 
and  [M-opIe,  We  will  not  look  back,  nay,  forward,  and  witli 
eoidiijeiiec  !  W\  cry  aloud  that  all  the  world  may  h<ar  : 
'  \V f  too  ore  Pnissidns.  (ind  Pntssidus  :t:ant  to  br  ! 

It  is  not  only  by  f  h<-  iiit  roduet  ion  of  t  h<-  (i(  riiian  lanLrua<:<' 
that  til'-  seli((oIs  in  Sehl' swi<4  <ire  used  as  a  means  of 
d<^t  ro\  iiiL,'  the  nat  ional  spirit  of  t  he  populat  ion  ;  i  list  met  ion 
in  history  has  aKo  Ixcn  dir* cteil  to  this  (  nd. 

In  III  itnatlis/iundf  (sul>j<cts  rt  latin;:  to  one's  own 
Country)  the  chiltlrcii  are  taught  nothing  of  Schl<  swig's 
history  [)rior  t  o  1  St".  I-  that  is  to  sav.  t  hat  t  he  pro\'inc(  has 
1)1(11  Damsh  fioni  timi  inniii  niorial,  that  it  li.ad  always 
had  Dariish  laws.  .  t  e.  :  on  t  lii-  coiit  rar\'.  I)(  niiiark  is  sj)oken 
of  as  a  totally  for'  i'_;n  or  hostile  eoimlrv,  to  which  the 
Diiehv  had  ])■  <  i\  tjid.  luit  from  whieli  it  has  now  bei  ii 
happi!\'  hi)'  rat '  d  ! 

Th'  instruction  in  ■"national  histor\  "  il'scnb<s 
(»'  riiiaiiN  's  gri  at  iii  ss  in  t  h'  Middli  AlT'  s  and  li'  i'  sulis(  <pi(  nt 
d<  ejni"  ,  until  til'  tiiu'  w  h-  n  Prussia  app.  .nid  on  t  he 
se'  U'  .  Th'-  polie\-  of  h'  r  rujiis  has  li.  (H  p.i 1 1  iot  ieall V 
s' If  s  lerilieinu'  and  lo\al  without  paiall  1.  whilst  that  of 
tli'ir  n-i^hbouis  Was  niadf  up  of  intrigiK  ainl  \iii|(ne<  ; 
that    is  wh\-   Prussia   has  b.  <  n  ri  vsardi  d  I      Thr  eoiKpn  st   of 


Prussia's  Oppression  of  Schleswigers     75 

Silesia,  the  partition  of  Poland,  the  annexation  of  Hanover, 
etc.,  are  sij^ns  of  God's  wondrous  guidance  of  His  chosen 
peo})le,  the  great  nat  ion  which  is  considered  to  have  dimmed 
the  lustre  of  all  others.  By  the  side  of  all  this  glory, 
Denmark's  history  and  culture  are  rarely  mentioned, 
and  then  usually  with  pity  or  irritation. 

Children  have  been  punished  xvhen  theji  hdie  spoken 
Danish  in  the  school  or  in  the  playground  !  In  some  plae(  s 
as,  for  instance,  at  Aabenraa.  a  system  of  fines  was  in- 
troduced some  time  ago,  the  school-children  being  fined 
for  every  Danish  word  they  uttered  ;  but  lnt(  r  on  the 
punishment  was  changed  to  '' staying-in."  It  is  not 
unusual  to  subject  to  corporal  punishment  any  children 
who  are  unable  to  repeat  their  (ierman  lessons,  and  a 
certain  headmaster  named  Blohm,  of  Haderslev,  was 
particularly  notorious  in  the  eighties  as  being  one  of 
Schleswig's  worst  school  tyrants  in  this  resjxet. 

But  all  this  Germanization  has  been  in  vain.  The 
Schleswigers  have  remained  as  Danish  as  before  and  look 
to  Denmark  as  their  mother-country,  continuing  to  cherish 
Danish  culture.  The  greater  part  are  well-to-do  j^easnnts, 
and,  as  I  had  occasion  to  note  some  years  ago  dm'ing  a 
journey  in  Schlcswig.  they  are  highly  educated. 

It  was  really  a  feeling  of  impotence  in  the  matter  of  the 
Germanization  of  North  Schleswig  which  caused  Governor 
Koller  in  the  autumn  of  1898  to  issue  tlu'  revolting  (keree 
ordering  the  expulsion  of  Danes  from  Sehl(  swig.  This 
measure  caused  the  deepest  indignation  throughout  the 
civilized  world  and  gave  rise  in  Germany  to  en(  rgctic 
protests,  amongst  others  by  the  Reichstag  iiu  iiihc  rs 
E.  Richter  and  Vollmar,  Professor  H.  Delbriick  (Con- 
servative, professor  of  history  at  the  Berlin  I'niversity). 
Professor  Kaftan,  the  Miinchener  AUg.  Zeitung.  and  otlier 
organs  representing  cultured  opinion  in  Germany.  The 
Government  prosecution  against  Professor  Delbriiek  for 
his  attitude  over  the  deportations  deepened  the  anger 
throughout  F.urope  and  lessened  the  hopes  of  a  })acific 
solution  of  the  Schleswig  question. 


76         Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

It  will  be  of  interest  to  note  what  a  German  in  an  official 
position,  Pastor  O.  Gkisz,  of  Ilolstcin.  had  to  say  on  the 
subject  of  SehUswig's  national  cause  after  a  trij)  in  the 
Scandinavian  countries  in  1884.  TIk-  following  passage 
occurs  in  one  of  his  Utters  writtc  n  wlu  n  on  his  travels  : 
"  I  cannot  lulp  stating  as  my  firm  conviction  that  the 
return  of  the  northern  Danish-speaking  portion  of  Schles- 
wig  would  not  Ik-  too  heavy  a  j)ricr  to  pay  for  a  real  and 
since  re  frirndsliij)  with  Di  nniark  and  the  North." 

In  a  rt  niarkahle  work  by  a  Gi  rnian,  Tin  odor  Brix, 
entitled  Xord-ScJdfSZLifi  nnd die  Sclbsicrnicdrigung  Deutsch- 
latids  (Herlin.  19<)2),  we'  have-  the  gratification  of  noting 
another  (ie  rnian  protest  against  the  Prussian  policy  of 
tyranny  in  Sehleswig. 

He-  shows  how  the  North  Sehleswig  policy  is  but  a 
counterpart  of  German  policy  as  a  wiiole.  Tlu-  former, 
like'  the  latter,  is  a  sign  of  "tiie  eie dine-  (Xirdcrgntig)  of 
politieal  life  in  (ie  riiiany.  The  le  aeling  eireks  in  (ie  rmany, 
having  wholly  abaiuie)ne  el  theinse  he  s  to  worship  of  powe  i-, 
to  flattery  anel  aelulatiem  of  ineliviehials,  of  monarehs,  now 
demand  from  othe  rs  the  same  readiiie  ss  te)  sae'iifiee-  e  very 
inele}x  iide  nt  political  ee)nvietion.  The  sj)irit  of  lilxrty 
in  (it  rmany  has  taken  re  fuge-  among  the-  le)we  r  classes,  who 
are-  iiiae-e-e  svihle-  te)  ("e)urt  anel  Gove  rnnie  nt  intlue-nce  s.  .  .  . 
Hy  te.rme-rit ing  anel  wearing  e)ut  the-  spirit  e)f  the-  eham])ions 
e-f  the  peijitieal  aspirations  of  the  Danes,  by  criminal 
prose  eut  ions  and  >s(ntt  nre  s,  or  by  ele  j)e)rt  ing  t  heir  aeilu  re  nts 
and  thus  injmiiig  th«  m  econe)mieally,  no  de>ubt  the-  enel 
can  Im-  gaine-d  e)f  stifling  the-  pe)litical  life-  of  tin-  Danes 
outwardly,  ;ind  many  ;i  support*  r  whe)  lacks  material 
e-r  meiral  powi  r  of  re  sjstanee-  against  such  we-aj)e>ns  may 
fall  ;i\\;iy  fre^iii  tin  pait\'  and  '  k<  <  j»  ejui(t.'  Hnt  rial 
eli.'iuvimsui  is  n-  <  di  d  to  s(  c  in  t  lie-  e  IT<  e-ts  e)f  sueh  mi  t  hods 
a  e-onvi  rsion  te.  tin    (i(  rman  spirit." 

I  \'>i  II  know,'  \\iit(s  the  autlieir,  "that  e\(r\-  aj)pe  a! 
to  tli<-  s.  nsc  (.f  jiistie-c  of  the  (irrman  people  is  useless. 
Hut  siii-<  1\-  ;ui  (  nliLdit (  rii  li  nation  iiia\-  re  as()nal)l\-  l>e- 
< '■  dit<(|    \sitli   so   iiiiie-li    nnd'  rstanding  eif  tin    interi  sts  e)f 


Prussia's  Oppression  of  Schleswigers     7T 

its  own  State  as  to  make  it  realize  the  disastrous  elements 
of  the  Koller  method  of  '  quieting  '  the  people.  A  public 
agitation  is  far  less  dangerous  than  one  carried  on  in 
secret  beneath  the  surface.  And  the  '  quiet  '  is  the  ashes 
under  which  the  fire  of  the  hatred  of  the  Germans  is 
smouldering." 


VIII 

THK  (iKRMAX  FRATRICIDAL  WAR  OF  18G0 

FmsMA.  Iiavinj,'  gained  in  iinportaiu-c  since  the  war  with 
Denmark,  was  hound  s()(»ner  or  hiter  to  liudit  Austria,  a 
war  wlneh.  as  hoth  parties  were  well  aware,  would  settle 
the  (juestion  of  (iernian  he^'cniony.  This  (pustion  had 
hitherto  forincd  a  persistent  (thstaele  to  the  unity  of 
(iennany. 

Th«'  two  countries  soon  canie  to  lo;.f~* '■^"'•"J'^  over  the 
administration  of  Schleswii,'- Hoi  stein  ;  t  he  Ni't(  s  (  xchan^'cd 
between  tluin  hccame  more  and  mori-  j)ro\()eat i\'e  in 
tone,  and  the  interjacent  .States  showed  thenisthts 
inereasin;:ly  hostile  to  Prussia.  Hismarek  then  turmd  to 
Italy  to  obtain  an  all\  aj^'aiiist  Austria,  holding  out  \'(iutia 
as  a  reward.  He-  also  \isited  Naj)olfon  III  at  Hiarntz 
(.September  1S<;.")),  and  their  nei,'<»t  iat  ions  resulted  in 
Xa|)oleon  promisin;j  neutialitv  in  the  strui_'i,'le  which 
Hismarek  m<ant  to  pro\'oke  Ixtwctii  (ieriuaiu'  and 
.\ustria.  Th<re  is  nodnibt  that  the  Imperial  adventurer 
\sas  Weill  (.\.r  by  eiat't\  [ironuses  of  eoiKpiest  on  t  he 
part  (if  Jum  whom  he  ?im  rel\'  r(  Ljarded  as  a  desperado 
and   \s  lioiii   In    li()p(  (1   to  nut  \\  it . 

Austria  and  Prussia  be^jaii  ui  March  I  S«l(;  t  ■>  mass  t  roops. 
each  ascribing'  the  initiati\c  to  the  otliir.  whilst  Prussia 
and  Italy  entered  into  an  offeusix.-  and  di  fensi\-.'  alli.anee 
against  Austria. 


i{i  iiiarek,    liowe\er.    found    in    Kuil'    \N  illiam    .and    his 

imiiiediat  <•   eiitouraL'e   a    \iV\    serious   obstacle    to   the    prose 


The  German  Fratricidal  War  oi-   1866    7U 

cution  of  his  war  j)lans.  William  was  perturbed  at  the 
thought  of  a  rupture  with  the  old  ally  and  of  a  war  between 
German  nations,  and  Queen  Aupusta,  the  Queen-Dowager, 
the  Crown  Prinee  Frederiek,  and  the  Crown  Princess 
supported  him  in  this  viiw.  liismarek,  whom  sound 
(ierman  opinion  regarded  as  William's  evil  genius,  was 
so  ineensed  by  this  opposition  to  his  boundless  ambitions 
that  he  fell  ill.  However,  William's  view  underwent  a 
change  after  Bismarck  had  escaped  assassination  at  the 
hands  of  a  fanatical  young  champion  (jf  liberty  named 
Cohen,  who  had  been  overwrought  by  the  general  indigna- 
tion against  the  Iron  Chancellor.  His  escape  was  regarded 
as  an  infcrposilion  of  Providence,  and  the  following  day 
William  issued  an  order  for  the  mobilization  of  the  entire 
Prussian  Army  ! 

The  immediate  cause  of  the  ruj)ture  was  the  disjmte 
over  the  administration  of  Schlcswig-Holstein,  which 
Austria  wanted  to  refer  to  the  Federal  Diet,  summoning 
for  this  purpose  a  sitting  of  the  Provincial  Estates  of 
Holstein.  Bismarck  declared  at  once  that  this  would  be 
tantamount  to  a  withdrawal  from  the  convention  which 
the  Monarchs  of  Austria  and  Prussia  concluded  at  Gastein 
in  1805,  to  the  effect  that  Prussia  alone  should  administer 
Schlcswig,  and  Austria  Holstein. 

To  be  on  the  safe  side,  and  in  order  to  settle  the  dispute 
by  a  war —Bismarck's  favourite  method — he  sent  a 
Prussian  army  into  Holstein  (June  7,  18GG),  which  the 
Austrians  evacuated  without  fighting.  Prussia  now  sub- 
mitted to  the  Federal  Diet  an  ultimatum,  demanding 
reforms  in  the  German  Federation  with  the  exclusion  of 
Austria.  The  President  of  the  Federation,  however. 
declared  that  Prussia's  conduct  constituted  a  hreacli  of 
treaty,  and  ordered  the  mobilization  of  the  whole  of  the 
forces  of  the  Federation  with  tlic  exception  of  the  Prussians 
(June  11).  Three  days  later  the  majority  of  the  States, 
among  them  Bavaria,  Wiirtemberg.  Saxony.  Hanover,  and 
Nassau,  voted  for  Austria,  whilst  only  a  few  minor  North 
German  States  sided  with  Prussia.     The  Prussian  envov 


80         Before,  During,  and  After  ldl4 

thereupon  announeed  tluit  tlie  Treaty  of  Federation  was 
to  he  consiilereci  hroken  and  no  longer  hinding. 

When  Saxony,  Hanover,  and  the  Electorate  of  Ilesse 
rejected  Prussia's  reform  proposals,  Prussia  declared  war 
on  these  States,  and  innnediatcly  after  followed  the 
declarations  of  war  Ixtween  Austria  on  the  one  side,  and 
Prussia  and  Italy  on  the  other. 

It  will  he  plain  to  every  one  that  this  war  came  about 
without  any  rial  that  is  to  say,  legitinuite  and  com- 
pelling cause,  and  contrary  to  all  law  of  nations.  The 
victory  rested  with  Prussia  and  proved  ""  brilliant,"  as 
we  used  to  say  ;  and  the  battle  of  Koniggriitz  (or  Sadowa), 
one  of  the  greatest  and  bloodiest  in  our  era,  ended  in  the 
hautboy  players  striking  up  the  hynui,  ""  \ow  thank  we 
all  our  (iod." 

In  fact,  (iod  was  thanked  for  His  wondrous  interposition 
in  letting  T'JO.OOO  well-armed  (iirmans  butcher  on<- another 
in  a  barbarous  fratricidal  contest  according  to  the  laws 
of  "  military  science,""  but  letting  the  Prussians  butclur 
best  ! 

The  Peacf  of  Prague,  which  followed  upon  this  conllict, 
was  eoiieludcd  with  the  assistance  of  Xai)olcon  that  is 
to  say,  of  -A  f(nti<^n  ]*o:cn\  without  which  seemingly  these 
r<j)resentati\  (  s  of  the  (iermanic  race  were  unable  mutually 
to  adjust  their  differences. 

IJy  this  jxace  .\ustria  had  to  acknowledge  the  dissolution 
of  the  (i(  rmati  !•'(  derat  ion  and  countenance  a  new  (ierman 
!•'(  (It  rat  ion.  of  whic-h  Austria  would  not  be  a  m(  niber. 
Thus  Prussia  ol)tained  the  l(in;^'e(l-for  hegemony  in 
(Germany. 

.\t  the  I'nissian  hea(i(piarters  the  intention  was  to 
oeeiipN'  \'ienna  when  peace  was  concluded  the  army 
was  at  the  j^'ates  and  large  territorial  gains  from  Austria 
were  anticipated,  apart  from  the  kin<^'d..ni  of  IlanoNcr, 
which  was  simph'  aiuiexed  bv  Prussia  ;  but  fear  of  war 
with  Fiance  induced  the  (io\ernm»  nt  to  accept  the  terms 
of  peace. 

Austria  had  to  c<(le  N'ep.efia  to  |tal\   :inil  make  o\er  lier 


The  German  Fratiucidal  War  of  18GG    81 

ri^'lits  ill  Schk's\vii,'-II()Ist(iii  to  Pnissiii.  It  was  slipiilated, 
liowc-vcr,  that  the  j)()j)ulati<)n  of  \'<iutia  should  (•xj)rcss 
its  wisli  lor  iiicorpoi'alion  with  Italy  by  a.  plebiscite,  and 
(Art.  5)  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  northern  or  Danish 
part  ol"  Sehleswi^  should  settle  by  the  same  means  whether 
they  wantid  to  return  to  Danish  rule. 

Outside  (Jermauy  there  was  j^eneral  consternation,  not 
to  say  contemj)t,  at  this  scandal  of  luiropean  ci\ili/ation, 
and  Prussia  ^fained  no  admirers,  unless  amon;^'  soldiers  on 
tt'chnical  /jjrounds  ;  on  the  contrary,  her  martial  [)rogrcss 
was  watched  with  general  anxiety. 

'i'liis  (ierman  war  had  its  oi-i^nn  in  the  brutal  obtrusion 
of  a  niw  military  State  in  the  midst  of  Kuroj)c,  which 
mi^ht  be  exj)eete(i  to  await  suital^lc  ()|)p()rtunities  for 
attackintr  other  nations  and  had  most  clearly  shown  that 
■its  oxi-n  poxccr,  its  ozcn  (idvanta^r,  were  its  only  considerations 
in  its  dealings  with  other  States,  and  that  the  ri<^}its  of 
nations  did  )iot  oiler  at  all  into  its  policy. 


IX 

Till-:    NKITKALITV    OF    HKLCnUM    AND 

LrxKMiuut; 

Hklghm,  wliicli  in  tlu-  tii,'lif tenth  century  belonj^ed  to 
Austria,  passed  into  tin  hands  ol'  France  after  the  war  of 
IT'.fJ  and  the  I-'reneh  \ietory  at  .leniapjxs  ;  it  remained 
I'reiieh  until  isl."),  when  at  the  \"ieiuia  ConL'ress  the 
kuiudoni  of  the  I'm  ted  Xi  f  herhinds  was  formed,  consist  in;j 
of  Ht  iL'ium  and  Holland.  The  i\< w  State,  with  its  ddft n  nt 
nal  ioiiaht  i<s.  eu>,toi!is.  religions,  (te.,  pioxtd  \ery  un- 
wiel(i\  ;  (liss(  nsi(  ins  soon  arose,  aiid  in  t  he  end  t  he  Heli,nan>-. 
ui  l.s.'5(»,  hiiike  info  ojxii  rehellion,  whicji  i  nd<(l  with  the 
deelarati'in  of  Hehjium's  indepi  ndenee.  FnL'land  and 
I''ranie  s\  mpat  hi/.ed  with  H(  iL'ium.  and  inducid  Austi-i:i. 
I'russia.  and  Hus^ia  to  join  t  h'  ni  in  aekiiow  hdijinL;  t h-'  new 
kini:(|oni  as  an  indt  jn  ndt  >il  and  //(?/// ',7  St  at  e  in  aeeoidanee 
w  it  h  t  he  '"  Treat  \'  of  t  he  'I' went  v  four  Art  icK  s  ""  of  1  s'A\ . 

\  i<  h  (jMarn  Is  with  Holland  suon  arose.  liowtAir,  and 
tli<  !{■  JLiiaiis  were  hiatiii.  hut  w  (  1 1  sa\(d  ii\  a  I'ri  ncli 
.uiiiN.  Atter  leiiewid  t  i  L!  li  f  i  ii  Lf  HdLliuni  had  to  ahandoii 
I.'  f  elau:r-  to  Ma.islneht  and  parts  (if  laixeiiilturi;  and 
!.in;lnii;'.  |-"Mi:.!ly,  l>y  the  treat_\  of  London  (is.T.ti. 
|-!ii;.'!an(l,  I-'iaiice,  Austria.  I'rusMa.  ami  Russia  delimtely 
rafit:<fi  H- Ilium's  int  ernaf  ional  ])osition  and  v.'"-'""''"'' <d 
t  !;'•  ii'-ut  r;:!it  \-  of  t  he  connfrv. 

Ae'-i'rdin^    fo    Art.    7.     H' iLiium    w.is    to    (institute    an 

Mlijepi  iKJelit    State    iu    pef  j  lel  n  1 1  N'.    sul)J>  et    to   the   IlIMltations 

•"(■il'il  in    \it>.   1,  "J.  and    I.      ndL,'pim   was  JMUind  to  oh- 
'  I A  1    t  1m     ame  neut  laht  V  in  if  s  relaf  ii  >ns  with  of  h<  r  States. 


Belgium  and  Luxemburg  Neutrality     83 

Wliilst  the  Powers  thus  undertook  to  respect  Bcl^iunis 
neutrality  and  protect  her  from  any  infringctncnt  thrrrof, 
Belgium,  on  the  otlier  hand,  undertook  in  ease  of  hostihties 
not  to  favour  any  one  State,  and  aeeordin^rly  to  abide  hy  the 
old-estabhshed  rule  of  refusing  permission  to  the  armies  of 
a  belligerent  eountry  to  mareh  through  her  territory. 

This  treaty  has  never  eeased  to  have  a  binding  effcet. 

Whilst  the  peaee  negotiations  between  Prussia  and 
Austria  were  going  on  in  August  1800  Bismarck  and 
France's  ambassador,  Benetletti,  discussed  the  territcjrial 
gains  which  Napoleon  hoped  to  make  in  return  for  his  neu- 
trality, and  on  that  occasion  Bismarck  (according  to  Benc- 
detti)  gave  him  to  understand  that  Belgium  and  Luxemburg 
would  form  a  suitable  eonij^ensation,  whereuj)on  Xaj)oleon 
desisted  from  his  claims  to  German  territory.  This  ruthless 
proposal  to  seize  countries  which  had  not  taken  j)art  in 
the  war  and  had  given  no  cause  for  attack  A\as,  of  course, 
contrary  to  the  j)rinciple  of  nationality  previously  pro- 
claimed by  Napoleon  ;  but  this  violation  troubled  the 
usurper  as  little  as  it  did  the  ''  Blood  and  Iron  Chancellor."' 
A  proposal  for  an  alliance  between  France  and  Prussia 
was  now  drafted,  ])roviding  that  Napoleon  should  recog- 
nize Prussia's  acquisitions  as  well  as  the  ste{)s  which  this 
coimtry  might  take  for  the  -formation  of  a  new  German 
Federation,  whilst  the  King  of  Prussia  promised  to  facili- 
tate France's  acquisition  of  Luxemburg  and,  if  the  Emperor 
should  find  it  desirable  to  conquer  Belgium,  to  '"  assist  with 
an  armed  force  "  ! 

This  treacherous  proposal  of  August  20,  1860.  outraging 
all  ])rinciplcs  of  modern  statecraft,  was  written  down  by 
Benedetti  in  the  course  of  the  negotiations  on  the  subject 
with  Bismarck,  and  practically  at  the  hitter's  dictation. 
Subsequently  neither  Napoleon's  Government  nor  Bismarck 
was  prepared  to  admit  the  responsibility  for  having  initiated 
this  proposal. 

The  Cirand  Duchv  of  Luxcml^iu-g,  which  was  annexed 


Hi  lir.lOHK,     I)l   HlNt;,    AND    AlTKH    1 1)1 1 

hy  Franco  in  17l».')  and  cnlcd  to  that  country  by  tlio  Peace 
of  Carnpo  Forniio  in  17'.»7,  was  constituted  at  the  N'iciuia 
Congress  of  l.sl.')  a  separate  State  within  tlie  (iernian 
F<  (hratiiin.  althoULrli  awarded  ti>  the  Kinu'  of  tlie  Ntther- 
hinds.  On  the  outhrtak  i>f  the  IJelu'ian  revohition  in 
I  h.'JO  Lnxeiiiltur;,'  attaehid  its<If  t<i  IJeluiuni.  wliose  j)rit\i- 
sional  (iovennnf  lit  dechired  the  countiy  to  he  a  Htl;:ian 
pri>\iiiee.  Sul)-M  ( jui  lit ly  it  \\aN  settled  hy  thi'  Trtaty  i)f 
London  in  IS;{'.»  that  only  th<-  western  |)art  sh<>nhl  htlnni,' 
to  IJilLriuin,  NvhiUt  the  rt  inainini,'  part  was  to  l)e  achninis- 
tercd  as  ;i  s(  parate  State,  aekm 'W  ](  (iojui,'  the  soverii<,'nty 
i)f  the  Kinu  of  tlie  Net  herhiiids,  hut  still  l)t  lon^'int:  to  \\\c 
(i(  rnian  I"*  ilerat  ion.  On  the  dis^(tluti(ln  of  tlit  latter 
thniii^'h  the  war  of  ls<")«;,  l,u\<nihuri.'  heeanie  an  iluK-- 
peiident  State.  It  wa^  tin  ri  foic  unreasonalijc  to  art^ue,  as 
tilt-  (ieriiiaiis  did.  that.  I,u.\<  iiiliiiri/.  ""  as  an  old  (iernian 
coUiiti-\\"  shouM  Hot  lie  ^iparatid  from  ""what  is  ealK  d 
(it-rniaiiv."  ""  (ii  !  iiian\  "  \sas  not  a  natinnal  unit,  hut  a 
confrd.  rat  ii  Ml  <<\'  a  numlxr  ot'  (J«  rnian  .Slatrs.  JJisniarek 
adniitt'd.  in  fact,  ni  tli<-  N'oitli  (i(iiiian  I)i(  t  on  April  I, 
1N<",7,  that  hy  tin  dissolution  i<\'  \]\>-  (Ji  rnian  !•'(  <1(  lat  ion 
l.'i\(  MiliUiL'.  like  other  UK  inhi  Is.  r(  uaiMi  <1  its  full  s()\  <  i(  i^^rn 
iiL'ht  s.  That  hi  iiej  so.  ol)\  ioiisly  t  he  loit  i(  ss  of  Liixi  nihuii,' 
no  loiiij.  r  r- inauiid  an  allied  tort  n  >s.  and  Prussia  had 
th' n  joi.    no  riuht   to  k<  (  p  it  occupitd. 

W'h'  II  siiL'L'' st  i.  Mis  w.ic  iiiad<-  on  hi  half  of  the  l-'rmeh 
a--  t')  th'  c.  ss|.,ii  of  I,ii\.  iiihiiiL.'  to  IValicr  suhjeet  to  an 
ilid>  iiiiiit  \  and  \'<  tie-  ap[Mo\  al  ol  t  hi  Kiliu'  of  t  he  Xi  t  licr- 
lalids  and  "t  tin-  population,  walllkr  tliliats  \\  (  re  uttered 
in  t  h<  \..:tli  (iiiiiian  Di-t  in  the  name  of  tin  ""  joint 
I '.it  ill  rlanij."  \\  li'i'i  iip(  III  the  |-"r.  ndi  (  n  i\  t  rmueiit  withdrew 
its  pi'i  ii  ,osa!^  pro\  id'  d  that  t!ie  Piussian  'jarrisiin  \m  r'• 
r'  mo\  '  d.  'I  liroiiL'h  t  h'  III'  (hat  I'  Ml  of  til'-  ( ire  at  Pow  (  is  ;i 
t  I'  at  \  w  a->  t  lien  made  in  I.on'loii  <  mi  ^hl\  II.  I  MiT,  w  li'  i'  h\ 
th'  (iiaiid  I)i;''li\  of  I.u\i  nihiiiu'  \'.  a  -  d'cland  a  Utiitrdl 
S'df.    ■•  uii'f  r  I  Im-  ei.jl'  et  i\  '■  '."larant.  ,    of  t  le-  P.  .w<  i-/" 

Till-    ni';tiaht\     liM'l    tliir.  III.     to    In     r-sii'eted    in    ease 
..I   hi.-tihti'  ^  I"  tw-  '  n  u'  e'lihoiirinL.'  eiiuutri'  s. 


X 

THE  FUAXCO  (iKiniAX  WAK  OF  ISTO  :  IIOW 
IT  WAS  (  AISKI)  UY  IHSMAIU  K 

FiJOM  the  tiiiK-  when  I'liissin,  l)y  (kfcatiiiir  Austria,  had 
secured  the  licneinony  in  (ici'inaiiy.  it  was  irciU'rallv  thought, 
that  war  between  France  and  I'russia  for  the  heminony 
in  Europe  was  inevitahle.  IJotli  countries  were  merely 
waitin<^r  Tor  the  moment  when  they  sliould  resort  to  arms. 
It  was  the  object  ol"  liismarek's  thi)h)matic  art  to  brin^ 
about  tlie  war  wliilc  at  tlic  same  time  (roachno-  France  into 
dcchirinrr  it.* 

Bismarck's  aim  was  to  extend  Prussia's  power,  to  bring 
all  German  States  imck'r  her  k'ack-rship,  and  thus  to  ):)i-e- 
parc  Gfr))ia)i if  s  mill y  tliat  is  to  si\y,  (iCDndnifs  idculijicd- 
iion  tcith  Pnissiti.  For  wekk'ng  Ciermany  together  there 
coukl  be  no  better  means  than  (oisiun  :cith  Fnnicc  and 
conse(|uent  /(Y/r  of  dttack  from  that  (]uarter. 

Xa])ok'on's  inseciu'e  ])osition  in  France  at  that  time 
lieli)cd  to  further  l^ismarck's  pkins.  The  iMujjcror's  mihtary 
and  (h"pk)matic   faihnx^s   had  created   a  strong  oj)j)osition 

*  Amonii:  tlie  nmiierous  works  written  on  the  Frunco-Gcrnian  \V;ir. 
I  wish  to  draw  attention  more  esj)ecially  to  that  hy  tlio  Freneli 
Iiistorian  II.  Welscliinircr,  ""La  Guerre  de  ISTO.  ("auses  et  liespaii- 
sabilites  ''  {19M))  in  two  volumes.  Tliis  author  was  seerdary  and 
arcliivist  to  tiie  Lej^isiative  and  National  .\ss(  nil)ly  in  l.sdS  T(i  : 
lie  was  present  at  all  debates  on  the  war.  ncordi d  all  imi)oitanl 
events,  eopied  all  important  doeuinents.  and  couNrrM-d  witli  most 
of  the  leadinj:c  men  of  that  jxriod,  thus  aecjuirini:  (  xf  rnnrdinarily 
am])lc  and  detailed  materials  which  were  duly  pnbli'-hcd  in  this 
verv  unique  work. 

8.> 


86         Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

aguinst  him.  Accordingly  he  lounti  it  luccssarv  to  ctnuede 
UKxiilications  of  his  j)o\V(.r,  \vith  a  proportionate  stren^tht  n- 
ing  of  tlie  Senate  and  Legislative  Assembly.  Hut  it  \vas 
too  late  ;  the  j)r<»tests  in  j)amphlets  and  newspapers  against 
the  muddle  in  the  administration,  the  aj)palling  State 
ex|)enditure.  the  loans,  (te.,  heeame  loudrr  and  louder. 
After  the  j)olitical  elections  of  isd'.*,  which  sent  a  number 
of  talented  oppositionists  into  Parliament,  the  I'surjjer 
found  himself  no  longer  secure  on  his  throne,  and  he  there 
fore  pretended  to  turn  l^iheral  and  restored,  in  1870.  more 
or  less  the  old  parliamentary  system  of  (iovernment. 
The  nation  was  now  invited  hy  means  of  a  plebiscite  to 
declare  that  it  "  apj)roved  the  liberal  changes  introduced 
into  the  (.'onstitution,""  but  atlmittedly  it  was  understood 
that  wli'i(\rr  Noted  in  the  aHirmati\c  aKo  a|)prowd  of 
the  l''.mpire,  its  institution  and  its  corollaries,  and  gaxc  the 
Im])erial  I'riuce  a  lawful  title  to  the  crown.  Hy  enormous 
j)ressurt'  on  the  part  of  the  (iovermuent  the  jtlebiscite 
resulttd  in  a  l)ig  majoiity  for  Na])oleon.  but  the  minority 
was  IK  vert  lieless  a  gr(  at  danger,  as  a  number  of  t  he  miiitai'v 
eleiiH  nt  \oft(l  against  him.  and  it  was  unanimously  agr(  td 
in  the  Iiiip(  rial  coinu'ils  that  a  war  was  neei  ssary  to  saNc 
NajH  >h  <  .ii's  t  Iiroiic  ! 

In  l''ranee  t  he  opinion  had  grown  t  hat  a  strong  and  mi  it  ed 
(i(iiiiaiiy  eonstitut<(i  a  dauLjer  to  I'raner.  \vhilst  the 
(iirniaiis  r(  L'^'ii'drd  the  I''rt  neh  as  opponents  to  their 
sfri\inL,'^  f'»r  unilieat  ioii.  The  \\arlike  f(  (  hug  against 
l-"raiicc  Ml  (i<  ruiaiiy  iiia\  t»e  <:atliei-((l.  iiiUr  (did.  from  a 
r(  poit  s.  lit  in  isfis  \>\  tin-  P'rineh  miHlar\"  aftaeli('.  Colonel 
.Sf<iffil.  ill  which  hf  sj,iik<-  of  thi'  constant  .•leeiisat  ioiis 
a'_'ani--.f  I'raiic-  ;iii(l  tin  ((intuiuid  ariiiiiiLT  <'l  I'ni^^ia.  and 
(|i cl.iii  (1  tli;it  thi-  position  was  such  that  it  must  '  m 
I :  i!i:lih/  li  lid  tn  u  ar . 

That  liisuiarrk  iout:  <•- >iit  <  uiplat  id  wai'  witli  l"raue< 
top  fh'  (wjKjui  s|  ot  AIs;icc  ;iU(l  l.orraUK-  iua\  be  gaihi  nd, 
a  pa  it  t  ri  >iu  ot  111  r  uidii-at  imus.  !>(  .m  his  .Uf  mm  i : .  pubhshid 
b\  hi.  sicrrtaiw  ^^lI■ll/,  Huseh.  iu  which  he  sa\  s  that  in 
i^tiC.    bcli.ic  the  (iiiniau    war  of  that    \iar.   he   iiiootid  an 


The  Franco-German  War  of  1870         87 

tunica blc  settlement  between  Prussia  and  Austria,  where- 
upon the  two  Powers  would  jointly  make  7V(ir  on  France  in- 
order  to  reconquer  Alsace-Lorraine. 

This  was  confirmed  by  the  leader  ol"  the  German  Centre 
Party,  Franekenstein,  who  published  a  note  from  his 
diary  reeordiufj  a  conversation  with  Hismarek  on  the 
subject. 

We  know  also  from  a  letter  of  October  28,  1808,  written 
by  General  Ducrot,  that  the  Prussian  Countess  l*ourtal^s, 
after  her  arrival  in  Paris  from  IJcrlin,  informed  him  of  a 
statement  made  by  Sehleinitz,  minister  of  the  Royal  Ilcjuse, 
res])cetin(f  Prussia's  imj)ending  acquisition  of  Alsace. 

That  the  Germanists  in  Berlin  were  thinkiuff  in  the 
sixties  of  the  conquest  of  Alsace  and  Luxemburg,  as 
well  as  of  Schleswig-IIolstein,  is  shown  by  the  following 
incident  : 

^Vhen  in  18(i7  the  Luxemburg  question  at  one  moment 
threatened  to  develoj)  into  an  armed  conflict  between 
France  and  Prussia,  the  students  of  Strasburg  sent  a 
fraternal  and  ]:)acific  address  to  the  students  of  13erlin. 
The  latter  answered  with  a  long  address  published  in  the 
Sfrassburger  Courier,  which  contained  the  following  pro- 
noimcement  :  "  To  us.  as  to  all  honest  men  who  know 
how  to  distinguish  between  mine  and  iiiinc,  there  exists  no 
question  as  to  whether  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Lu.renibur<i, 
or  Sclilesi\.-i<^-If<)Isleiii,  or  Alsace  are  Gcrnum  counlries\  the 
inalienable  ))rojierty  of  the  (icrman  nation.  .  .  .  ^Ve 
(iermans  are  a  peaceful  people  and  not  a  j)eoj)le  eager  for 
eoiupiest,  but  we  wish  to  keep  what  belongs  to  us  and 
preserve  it  from  lliieves.  We  regard  as  traitors  to  oin* 
country  and  to  the  (icrman  nation  tliose  who,  in  order  to 
escape  a  defeusii-e  riY/r  waged  to  reject  shameless  claims, 
are  willing  to  surrender  a  German  country  by  ui-ging  a  dis- 
honom'able  ])eacc.  .  .  .  You,  inhabitants  of  Alsace,  speak 
to  us  as  Frenchmen,  l)ut  most  of  you  beni'  German  names. 
you  are  of  German  race.  You  wish  at  all  costs  to  be 
Frenchmen  and  you  sing  to  your  shame  "  O  France,  6  ma 
jxitrie  !  '  instead  of  intoning  oiu'  "  Dculschland,  Deutsch- 


88  Before,  DriUNc;,  and  After  191 1 

land  iibtT  Alks,  iilx.!-  AlK  s  in  dt-r  Welt."  Wf  say  t<»  you, 
know  yourscKt  s  I  "    " 

A  war  wa;,'i(l  to  obtain  AUacr  was  thus  r«  Ljaidt  *1  U'lt  as  a 
war  ot"  a^'Lji'cssion,  l)ut  as  a  xiiir  o/ dt  fi  luf  dv\\\\cr  ol'  all 
the  alK  ;,'i<l  riirlit  ol"  t  lu-  (it  rnian  nat  ii>n  I 

The  l-'ii  nch  anli)as^a(ll>l•  at  1^  ilui.  He  iitiji  1 1 1.  had  iVrr 
since  lS(i(;  lurnisht  (1  drtailrd  ]iart  iculais  of  the  \i(\\s  h(  id 
in  Prussia  and  of  the  ])rol)alilc  plans  ol'  that  country,  its 
j)rc])arations  t^ir  war,  etc. 

In  the  end  a  rdsiis  Ixlli  Ixlwrtu  l-"ranc<-  and  I'russia 
arose  in  a  (juartc  r  from  which  it  was  least  i  xpected. 

Spain,  whii'h  lt\'  the  re\i  "hit  ii  in  ..I'  isiiS  had  slialtered  tiic 
fetters  of  the  H'lUi-hon  throne,  alread}'  ^\cakencd  hy  decay 
from  witjiin.  and  d(]H)scd  t  he  dissdlut  e  (^U(  en  Isatxlla, 
wanted  a  new  lUMiiarch.  Mai^hal  I*rim  Lheii  up<>n  induce*! 
the  ('(.rt(  s  to  ()ff(  r  the  Spanisli  einwn  to  a  I'ni^siaii  prince, 
Leopold  .,f  Iloheii/oll,  in,  a  relati\-e  of  Kiii^'  WiHiaiii. 

Heiitdetti  had  rejM.rt((l  as  eai-jy  as  M,ii-eh  I^il'.t  (vmu 
Herhn  that  the  Spauish  amha^sadiT.  l{;iiiees.  liail  aiMiNcd 
on  wiiat  was  said  to  !)■•  an  iiiiiiiipi  irt  aiit  (  iraiid.  hut  that 
he  hinisi  ll'  su>p(  <ti  ti  f  hat  it  had  t  o  d. .  w  it  li  1 'inn  ■  1,-"  pi -Id's 
candidature,  and  he  hail  (|u>  st  i.  iih  d  hiiii  "n  the  matlir. 
hut  ree(i\i(l  an  e\asi\-e  aiiswir.  H(iieditti  spi.ke  ah'  ut 
t  he  candid  at  lire  to  t  lie  I'nissiaii  I  iiiler  S-  eii  t  ai'y  ol'  St  ate, 
'Ihile,  who  pretiiidid  til  kui'W  ii'ithiiiLT  ah"Ut  it.  .-iiid  to 
IJisiiiarek,  who  1''  i'jli' d  iiidiffei'  in  c  ;iiid  iiil'ilied  that  he 
did  not  think  I'line,-  I.,  op,, Id  \sonld  h--  ahl.  lo  r.tain  t  he 
Sp,■lIn^h  throii--  tor  \.  i\  loii^r_  and  that  hi-^  tat  h'  r.  I'rince 
Ant  oil,  \v,i  -  t  111  [■■  !■  If'-  di^Uiehle  d  I  o  hi  Ij  I  hilii.  I'hi  po  -si- 
hilit  \-  of  a  II  oh'  n/.oil'  in  pnnei-  on  I  In-  Sp:ini--h  I  liron<-  w  as, 
how  <  \  <  r,  admit  !  I  d  1 1\  Hi  mare  k.  aiii  1  i  \  ■  r\  t  hiiii,'  p'Miit  ^  to 
his  ha\  uiu'  ^to.MJ  111  hind  thi>  pkiii,  \>\  \\liieh  |-'r,inei  \sas 
to  III-  ^'oaded  into  \s  ar.  lie  eli  arU  l  nl  i  in  i'  d  at  a  pi  oj  .it  lolls 
moiiii  nt  to  hiiiiL'  alioul  an  amiid  eonlliel  \sitii  I'ranee. 
l-'roin  till-  miht  a|-\  point  ol'  \  i.  \s  ( ,,  miaiiX  v.  a  -  i  ■  ai  i\  .  The 
ariiii'^  \M  r>  e\e.  hintK  or^'ani/id  and  ti..!ii.i|  anil  eoiild 
I  la ->    tioiu    a    pi  aei-    to   a    \\ai     |iM,tin;_'    in    a    \iis     li\s    da\s. 


The  Franco-German  War  of  1870         80 

Moltkc  liiul  prepared  everything',  and  sluired  Bismarck's 
wish  to  brinfjf  about  a  war  with  France  before  lonj^.  TIk  y 
were  well  aware,  throu^'h  spit-s,  that  the  military  or(fani/a- 
tion  in  that  country  was  very  faulty  and  that  mobilization 
would  take  a  comparatively  lon<^  time. 

In  France  a  n(!W  regime  was  to  be  inau^nirated  at  the 
bcf^inninf^  of  ISTO  by  the  so-called  Liberal  Ministry  of 
£mile  Olliricrs,  but,  unfortunately,  the  task  was  beyond  his 
j)owers  ;  and  what  was  still  worse,  the  future  Foreign 
Minister,  the  Due  de  Ciramont,  lacked  all  the  subtler 
qualities  recjuired  of  a  dii)lomat.  lie  became  the  chief 
cause  in  France  of  that  country's  misfortune  througii  the 
conlliet  over  the  asjiirations  of  the  Ilohenzollern  ])rince 
to  the  Sj)anisii  throne,  which  liismarck  wanted  to  bring 
about.  He  was  overbearing  and  shortsighted,  ruthless 
and  deceitful,  b(»th  towards  Xa[)oleon  and  his  colleagues 
and  towards  the  Parliament.  Bismarck,  who  had  met  him 
before,  once  said  in  his  coarse,  jesting  way,  that  Gramont 
was  ■'  the  greatest  fool  in  Ein-o})e  "'  ;  in  fact,  he  called  him 
"a  blockhead."  In  Welschinger's  opinion  this  was  one  of 
the  secret  causes  which  aggravated  the  disj)ute  between 
Prussia  and  France,  for  (iramont  liad  felt  dce])ly  offended 
and  had  sworn  to  avenge  himself  on  Bismarck  sooner  or 
later. 

x\fter  Gramont,  the  Empress  Eugenic,  tiie  beautiful 
Spaniard,  who  led  the  world  of  fashion  and  also  aspired  to 
political  inlluence,  was  the  chief  cause  of  France's  humilia- 
tion, as  she  wanted  war  on  dynastic  grounds. 

Na])oleon  III  was  at  this  time  in  indifferent  health  and 
irresolute  in  mind,  and  had  less  influence  on  the  trend  of 
affairs.  He  allowed  himself  to  be  led  In'  the  Empress  and 
Gramont,  although  he  held  back  oeeasionally  and  tried  to 
prevent  an  armed  conflict. 

That  King  William  and  his  whole  Government  were 
anxious  to  secure  Prince  Lco})oId"s  nominati(^n  to  the 
S[)anish  throne  is  now  well  known.  The  question  was 
debated  in  a  Cabinet  Council  on  March  15,  1870,  over 
which  the  King  presided  and  at  which  the  Princes  Anton 


90         Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

and  Leopold  of  Holienzolkrn.  Bismarck.  Tliilc,  Moltke, 
Roon(thc  Minister  of  War),  and  others  wire  l)re'^ent.  Bis- 
marck said  to  I'rinc(  Leopold  :  "  It  is  a  Prussian  patriot's 
duty.""  Tin  I'rinee  rrlused.  Bismarck  said  :  '  It  is  a 
|)olitic;iI  n(  (vssity."  But  the  i'rinee  persisted  in  his  refusal. 
Bismarck,  later  on  in  the  spring',  appeaKd  to  Prince  Anton 
to  induce  his  son  to  accept  the  candidature  in  (u  rtiuniy's 
inttrtst.  At  len^'th  Princi-  Leopi.jd  yicUhd  to  the  pressure 
and  oheyed  the  call  on  June  1.  because  the  "  //i/en.v/.v  af 
the  Stdtt'  dniuuidtd  it."  wlureupon  Kin<,f  William  ^'ave  his 
consent  as  the  Ik  ad  of  the  House. 

In  sj)ite  of  all  this  the  Kinfj  j)ersisted  throu^diout  that 
he  was  irrnorant  of  all  thisc  intrigues.* 

Time  was  soon  ripe  for  Bismarck  to  intir\ene  more 
actively.  On  July  .'i  (iramoni  harnt  that  l*rim  had  offered 
the  Spanish  throne  to  Prince  Lcojiojd  and  that  the  latter 
had  si^rnified  his  acei  ptancr.  Winn  this  Ix came  known 
in  Paris  all  the  ik  \s --j)api  rs  Ix  at  the  alarm  and  di  (•lar<(l 
that  a  H< 'hen/.ollern  on  the  Spanish  tluonc  would  he  a 
^I'-riou's  menace.  Tii»-  l<a'liii<j  I'iUL'lish  n'-wspajters  <\  pressed 
thems.  Ivi  s  in  th<-  sani<-  strain,  and  it  was  ponitrd  out  how 
s(cr«tj\  fh<-  n<  L'ot  iat  ji.iis  had  Ixm  etinduetrd  anil  iiow  this 
imphi  (1  hosf  iht  \  to  l"iaiicc.  (ii-amont  (hcl.nrd  to  Prus^ia"^ 
amha^^ador  in  Pan--.  W(rtji(r.  that  {"raiiec  could  not 
tohratc  a  Prusvi.m  |,riiifr  ..n  the  Spanish  throne.  Thilc 
I 'nd'  r  St  er<t  al\  "f  Stat<.  dcclai-i  d  on  .Inly  t  to  l''ianee"s 
It  pn  SI  lit  at  i\r  in  Ht  ilni.  I.t  Soni'ij.  in  Pi  ntth  tti's  ahscncf. 
that  ■■  the  (.o\-  nmii  nt  w .  if  (|niti  iL.'ii"iant  i>l  thi-  iiiattt  r, 
\\  hi<h  t '  >  t  hi  in  ihil  \.'<\   i  M^t  ." 

'I'h'  \\<  \'>  ^  t  h.'t  Pi  met  I,'  o  pi  lid  hat!  hi  i  n  in\  iti  d  1 1  >  i  ictiip\ 
t  ht  thit'iif  I'l  Sji.iin  (irii\i  till-  Paris  j.ntihc  npininii  mtn  a 
ft  riiM  nt  of  t  Mit  I  nit  lit .  and  t  h'  ui'  at  i  si  ci  iiniiH't  ion  ri  ii/nt  tl 
in  t  h'-  I,'  L'i^lat  i\  I  As-r  i,  I.K  .  ( )n  .Iiil\  C,  ( ,r:iii."nt  is-,iii d 
a  slat'  nil  lit  Ironi  th'  (I'l-;-  inii"  nt  in  whirh  it  \\.,  s.-ml  that 
■'  \\i-  do  iii't    hi  ht  \  I    that    ri  spi  it    till-  t  III    ri:Jil      >  ■!'  a   m  i-jli 

•  <f  \Vi  jsiliin-i  r.  La  (;u,rrr  <!>  IsTU.  \m1.  1.  p.  U\  lli  n  fiis 
li- n  t"  till-  (..rni:iti  anlliMr  i.f  (  ns,  r  1 1>  1,1,  n  l\ai  ■^,  r.  Dr.  (»iiikiii. 
aiiH.h;,'   '   \s  Ip  .-I    aul  Im'TiI  II  -  :ir>    tli'    n  i  ■  .i  d  -  ■  ■(  t  li-    1  iii|ii  i  i.il  :ii  rlii\  i  . 


The  Franco-German  War  of  1870         91 

bouring  nation  compels  us  to  permit  that  a  foreign  Power 
shall  be  enabled,  by  placing  one  of  its  princes  on  the  throne 
of  Charles  V,  to  difilurb  to  our  detriment  the  present  balance 
of  pozver  in  Kuroj)e  and  place  the  interests  and  honour  of 
France  in  jeopardy.  If  it  l)e  otherwise,  wc,  strong  in 
your  suj)i)ort  and  the  nation's,  shall  know  how  to  fulfil  our 
duty  xvilhout  hesitation  and  iveakness.^'  The  pronounce- 
ment was  received  with  extraordinary  enthusiasm  by  the 
Legislative  Asseml)ly  majority. 

(iramont  thereu|)on  directed  Benedetti  to  proceed  to 
Kms,  where  King  William  was  staying,  in  order  to  ask  the 
King  to  revoke  the  Prince  of  Ilohenzollern's  acceptance  of 
the  Sj)anish  crown,  Benedetti,  on  requesting  the  honour 
of  an  audience,  was  invited  to  dine  with  the  King  on  July  9, 
and  carried  out  his  delicate  task  with  skill  and  moderation, 
but  could  achieve  nothing.  The  King  declared  that  the 
matter  had  not  been  discussed  by  the  Prussian  Govern- 
ment and  that,  whilst  he  had  by  no  means  encouraged  the 
Prince  to  accept  the  proj^osal  of  the  Spanish  Cabinet,  he  had 
not  wished  to  place  any  obstacles  in  the  way. 

It  seems  fairly  certain  that  King  William  did  not  want 
war  with  France,  and  that  he  liad  different  views  from 
Bismarck  on  the  achievement  of  German  unity.  When 
Prince  Leoj^old,  on  July  11,  expressed  his  wish  to  abandon 
his  candidature  for  the  Spanish  crown  and  the  King  heard 
of  this,  he  wrote  to  Queen  Augusta  that  he  joyfully 
ai)pr()vc(l  t)f  the  decision.  When  the  British  aml^assador. 
Lord  Lyons,  heard  of  Prince  Leopold's  withdrawal,  he 
asked  Gramont  to  ])roceed  cautiously  so  as  to  save  France 
IVom  war  and  not  to  yield  to  a  passing  wave  of  opinion. 
The  Cabinet  was  irresolute,  but  the  majority  of  the 
Ministers  were  inclined  for  peace.  Napoleon,  who  was 
suffering  from  his  usual  comj)laint  (gout),  was  not  inclined 
to  conuiiit  himself  to  a  campaign,  but  his  entourage  were 
more  warlike.  Gramont  tried  to  curb  tlic  bellicose  spirit 
in  the  Legislative  Assembly,  but  was  received  coldly, 
whereupon  he  telegraphed  to  Benedetti  to  urge  King 
William   still   more   strongly   to    forbid    Prince   Leopold's 


92    Befork,  I)rHiN(;,  and  Aitek  1014 

candidature  and  to  ^i\t-  ai\  ( arly  answer.  Tlie  Kinj^' 
diclared  uii  July  11  that  tlure  ^\a^  no  harm  hi  waitini,' 
and  that  he  wanted  ample  time.  Hrne»letti  re|Kated  that 
a  di  lay  Nvnuld  imperil  the  maintenaner  df  p(  ace.  HeiioiK  tti 
made  it  clear,  h<>\ve\(r.  that  if  I'rinee  Leopold  withdrew 
from  the  candidature,  t  his  (hcision  would  ha\"e  his  approval. 

The  Spaiush  amhassadcr  in  Paris  notilied  Xapohon  on 
July  ]'2  that  l*r'nut-  Antnn  IkkI  in  hi.s  sun's  nnint  :iitli<lr(i:t.ti 
tilt  (iiniUddlnrt-  fur  the  Spanish  tJirmic  on  aeeoimt  of  the 
corniilieations  which  it  seenKd  to  create.  The  matter 
should  ha\c  stopptd  here,  for  the  dauLji  r  of  I'russian 
intlutnce  in  .Spain  was  tlu  ri  hy  a\(rted  and  Krance  had  no 
loUL''  r  an\'  cause  to  Ur\  affronted. 

liisiiiarck  n  LTardcd  the  matttr  as  a  jui-sonal  defeat 
and  \\ant((l  to  r.  siL:n  at  oiuv  his  ollicc  of  Prime  Minister 
and  (  K.iiK  (  Hop.  I  iifort  unaf  el\ .  Paris  did  not  understand 
how  to  tak<-  a(i\anta;j;c  of  the  mw  situation,  now  so 
fa\<iuraMr  to   I'ralicc. 

The  l-!nipri  ss  and  the  Hoiinpait  ist  s.  who  wanted  war,  as 
tin  \  liopid  for  \ietorv  and  for  thr  remo\al  th<r(  by  of  the 
I.iIm  lal  l*arty  from  ollicc,  sc<iff(d  at  ""ratliir  Anton's 
t<I(  !_'rain  "  and  pnt<nd<d  that  tin'  l-aupir<-  was  tottiriiii:. 
Till-  I,' L'lslat  i\  <■  A -s(  riiliK'  loudU'  eoinlfmiii  d  ()ni\i(r"s 
cridulity  wli'U  in-  cxpri  ss.  d  his  joy  at  Prince  Leopold's 
wit  ii<lra\\al.  TIk  l'",\tri  iiic  l{iL'hl  pr>  >(  utid  tln'oiiu'li  Duxir- 
nois  iwlio  lia<l  III 'II  jostled  out  ot'  tin-  ( io\(rnment  l>y 
OUuNr!  rui  int  <  i[ ,.  ]lat  ioii  dnnandin^;  tti  know  whether 
the  ( ..  i\  ciiit!i.  lit  pi-..po>i(|  til  jii'i'i  uvi  ■jU(,r(inti  I  s  tor  the 
wariiuiLT  "ff  e|  I'ni-^ia's  inlhii  nee.  ()ni\itr  and  the 
liiaj'  ii  it  \  el  111-,  (■■  .ill  .-ejii'  -  111  till-  ( ii  i\  '  |-|iiii<  lit  \.  ,i;it  id  to 
I-     al'!.     t.,    a\..|.l    •.'.a!-,    and    tl;.     ai :  ,1  m -a.  f  .I's    ..f   the    (  ,  n  at 

PoW.f-,      llitllliat'd      to      the      (  ,1  '\  I    I  Ml),    tit       the      dl    -.ll-.lllllit  \       of 

r'oiit.  litniL'     it    -l!      •.'.ith     the     \<,itlidlM\\al     i.f    the     Prince     of 
1 1' ih'  ii/i '111  I  n.       L'.i'i    Lvi'iis    had    r'i-'i\id    sp.  eial    in-true 
1 1  oils  iri  III!  Ill  .(■■.',.  mini  nt   i  in  I  he  vul  ,j.  ct   and  re[  .rest  nt  .d 
to   (.ran:o(it    ui    a    l-ttir    "thi     iniiic  a -nral  .je   respi  nisilnht  v 

■  .f    t  1;.       1-"|  I   heh     (  le-^  .    Ililii.   Ill      I  I     III       W  (    I  .       til     \\  id.    II     the     r.lIlL''' 

ol    till     di    t.n'e."      Supportiil    li\     ()ili\iir.    who,    howi-\ir, 


The  Franco-German  War  of  1870         JKi 

lacked  tlie  ro(juisitt'  lirniiu'ss,  (Jrainoiit  trird  to  iiuluce 
the  Prussian  anil)assa(l()r  in  I'aris,  WcrtlK-r,  to  pirvail 
upon  Kint^  William  to  ^\\c  a  (Icclaration  as  to  <j[iiarant((s 
and  to  express  his  desire  that  all  niisunderstandinj^fs  should 
now  he  eonsidered  at  an  end.  This  niessa^u-  displeased  the 
Kinn-  aeeordiuLT  to  IJeiiedetti  and  lie  I'cealled  Werther. 
VViien  (iranionl  informed  Napoleon  ol'  the  situation  in  order 
to  discuss  the  measures  the  (io\'ernment  should  take-,  and 
when  he  told  him  of  the  dissatisfaetion  anion*,'  the  l)ej)uties 
and  Senators  who  denumded  Prussia's  ('omj)i(te  huiuilia- 
tion,  the  Kmjxror  was  so  swayed  hy  what  he  heard,  as 
well  as  hy  the  Empress  and  the  Court,  that  he  authorized 
(Jramont  to  direct  Henedetti  to  demand  an  assurance  from 
William  that  lie  would  not  allow  any  renewal  of  I'l-ince 
Leopold's  eandidature. 

Instead  of  dissuadinjjf  Xaj)oIeon  from  this  course,  which 
was  the  worst  possible,  (iramont  encourafred  him  in  it, 
clearly  inlluenccd  by  his  desire  to  humble  Bismarck,  and 
disreoardintjf  more  })rudcnt  counsels.  But  by  acting  thus 
he  gave  the  crafty  ]3ismarek  a  new  and  imex|)eeted  oj)p()r- 
tunity  of  attaining  his  object  and  bringing  about  the  war 
by  provoking  France. 

Without  consulting  Ollivicr  and  the  other  Ministers,  of 
whom  several  were  determined  to  ))reserve  jieacc,  the 
arrogant  (iramont  took  u))on  himself  to  send  at  once 
(evening  of  July  12)  a  teU-gram  to  Benedetti  instructing 
him  to  demand  from  King  William  a  declaration  that 
he  xiouhl  not  permit  the  revival  of  Prince  licopold's  candi- 
datiu'c. 

The  King  had  promised  Benedetti  to  send  for  him,  but 
in  order  to  avoid  a  fresh  discussion  of  the  subject  he  told 
his  adjutant.  Prince  Radziwill.  to  inform  him  that  Prince 
Leopold  had  withdrawn  his  candidature  and  that  he 
co)isidered  the  >)icide)if  elosed.  Benedetti  nevertheless 
asked  Radziwill  to  oljtain  an  assiu-anee  that  the  King 
would  not  permit  a  renewal  of  Prince  Leopold's  aspirations 
in  the  future,  whereu])on  the  Prince  gave  him  the  following 
ollieial  answer  :    ""  71ie  Kiiiii.  has  eonsented  lo  e.rpresa  hi^ 


94  Befokk,   DruiNc,   and  Afti:k  IDll 

full  approval  of  the  xcithdraunl  of  the  Prince  of  Ilohenzullern. 
He  cannot  do  more." 

Oil  the  iciH'wal  of  tilt*  !( <lU(■^t  lor  an  aiulifiu-c-.  the  Kiu^ 
aiiswtrcd  tluou^'h  tli«-  same  adjutant  that  \\r  luiist  drli- 
iiitrly  tU'cliiu-  to  inter  into  any  further  (liseiissions  on  thi- 
sul)jf("t  of  an  assnranee  whieh  was  tt)  hind  him  for  the 
futnre.  and  that  he  had  soid  his  ht.st  xeord  in  this  inilter. 
"For  thi^  nason."  says  Hadziwills  ollieial  re|)(»rt,  "the 
KiriLJ  refused  to  ^M'ant  a  fn-sh  audience,  as  he  liad  no 
other  answer  to  L,Mve  and  as  any  further  neu'ot i:dions 
nnt.st  he  conducted  throuLih  the  Ministers."  'I'he  Kin;,' 
;:ranted  Count  Heiiethtti's  wish  to  he  allow<-d  to  hid  him 
;,'o<>(hhye  on  his  depaituic  hy  nieetinLT  the  Minister  at 
the  railwa\'  station  as  he  was  ahout  to  [uoet cd  to  Cohlen/,. 
A  Frenehman.  wlio  was  |)rts(nt,  M.  A.  Me/.ieres.  aLrrees 
with  Hencihtt  i"s  eniphat  ie  deelai'at  ion  t  hat  mi  t  his  occasion 
"no  one  took  or  !ja\c  offence.""  and  that  the  relations 
hetweeii  t  h<'  Kiut,'  and  the  amhassador  U|)  to  the  hist 
moment   w«  re  mark'-d  hy  the  utmost   eoiiit(  sy. 

niSMAlU  K  S   FOlUiFHV  OF  TIIF   F.MS 
TFFFCiHAM 

On  .July  I  1-  a  dispatch  ariixid  from  the  I'liiicli  C  harL;c 
({'Affaires  ill  H(  rlin.  Fe  .Sourd.  (jiiotiuu'  •>  tiliLiram  troni 
|-!ms  which  had  a|i|>iai-ed  in  the  .Xorddeiilscht-  /.(itunii 
and  \\hii-li  was  of  the  f' >lli  >\vin^r  tenor:  "After  the  news 
of  the  ii  iimiciat  i' -n  of  the  hei-cdif  ai\"  Prince  of  Hohcn- 
/<ilh  rn  had  h- (  u  olJiciaJK-  U'ltitifd  to  the  hnjx  I'ial  T'leiu-li 
(io\  ermuf  lit  hy  the  Ho\al  Spanish  ( io\  .  i  ihik  iit .  tlu  i'leiieh 
amhassador  at  Fins  fmthe|-  demanded  of  His  .^hlj(st\  t  he 
Kin;,'  that  he  should  authori/.e  him  to  ttjeuiaph  to  Paris 
that  HAF  the  Kmc  hnund  him^- if  fur  the  futnre  ne\er 
au'ain  to  f^wr  his  consi  ut  if  th'-  Ih'licii/jill'rns  should  r.-new 
thrir  candidature.  HAF  the  Kmu'  th'-rcujion  decide!  not 
t')  r'-cei\-c  the  French  amhassador  a:jain,  and  let'f  word 
thron^'h  an  adjutant  that  His  Majcst\-  jiafl  nothina  furth'-r 
to  fell  hmi.  " 


How  Bismarck  Caused  It  05 

This  telegram  was  sent  by  Bismarck  to  the  Norddcutsche 
Zeitung  and  otlier  jiapcrs,  after  receiving  a  telegram  which 
King  William  had  sent  him  from  Ems  through  his  Minister 
Abeken  on  July  l.'J.  This  telegram  of  2.'}'2  words  was 
reduced  by  Bismarck  by  sundry  deletions  to  one  of  100 
words,  whereby  the  meaning  was  appreciably  altered. 
The  real  telegram  did  not  say  that  King  William  refused 
to  receive  Benedetti,  but  merely  that  he  declined  to  give 
any  assurances  as  to  guarantees  for  the  future,  and  further 
stated  that  "  as  the  ambassador  had  been  advised  of 
the  withdrawal  of  the  Prince  of  Ilohenzollern  before  the 
King,  he  nuist  realize  that  Ilis  Majesty's  Govermnent  had 
no  hand  in  the  matter,''  and  further  that  after  receiving 
the  Prince's  confirmation  "  he  had  nothing  to  say  to  the 
ambassador." 

The  real  telegram  was  anything  but  an  affront  to  the 
French  ambassador  or  an  insult  to  France  ;  it  merely 
showed  the  conciliatory  nature  of  the  King's  last  conversa- 
tion with  Benedetti.  Bismarck's  al^ridged  (falsified)  tele- 
gram, on  the  other  hand,  implied  an  affront  :  Benedetti 
had  been  ignominiously  rebuffed,  a  ruj)ture  had  taken 
place. 

Bismarck  was  beside  himself  with  anger  when  he  saw 
from  the  telegram  which  the  King  had  sent  him  from 
Ems  through  Abeken  tliat  the  whole  question  of  the 
Spanish  candidature  had  been  dro])i)ed.  His  hope  that 
it  would  goad  France  into  war  was  now  dashed  to  the 
ground,  but  he  soon  devised  another  trick  to  attain  his 
aim,  which,  with  cynical  frankness,  he  revealed  to  a  corre- 
spondent of  the  Vienna  Xcnc  Frcie  Pressc  on  November  20, 
1892,  when  he  was  no  longer  Imperial  Chancellor. 

W^hen  Bismarck  heard  of  the  withdrawal  of  the  Prince 
of  HohenzoUern  he  was — the  correspondent  quotes  Bis- 
marck's own  words — "  quite  surprised  at  this  unex})ccted 
termination,  for  I  asked  myself,  Will  such  a  favourable 
opportunity  ever  occur  again  ?  .  .  .  I  sent  a  telegram 
to  His  Majesty  at  Ems  resigning  my  offices  of  Prime 
Minister  and   Chancellor.     In   reply  I  was  asked   by  the 


90  Before,  Diking,  and  After  11)11 

Kin<;  to  L'l)  to  Kills.  Hut  I  tliou^'lit  to  inysilf  :  If  I  ^o 
to  Kiii-^.  ;ill  is  up.  In  the  ni<»st  I'axouraMc  (.•ircunist aui'ts 
\vc  shall  in<  It  1\-  arri\'f  at  some  jxtty  coiiipioniisc.  and  \vr 
shall  tlu-ii  iiiisN  the  only  li(»noural)lr,  tlic  <'nl\  L'rrat  sMlutioii. 

'■  I  ha.d  iiixitfd  M<>Itk<-  and  Hmin  to  dine  with  iiic  on 
July  1.'5.  and  we  w ere  discusNinL,'  all  kiiuK  i  >1' citnt  in;j(  iici.  s. 
\N'c  wtii-  still  s(al((l  at  tahli  \\  li<  n  a  trhijrani  aniscd 
iVoiu  l-"<nis.  I  sat  down  at  a  litth'  rtumd  marhli-  table 
standiiiL'  Ix  sjdi-  the  dinini:  t  ahli'.  I  read  tlu-  t<lr;,'rani 
oarcrully,  took  up  my  pi  n  and  crossal  inil  lnl(  nliotnilhj 
the  whole  passaL:<-  whtii-  IJcntdttti  asktd  for  a  luw 
audiriicc,  etc.  1  only  1<  t  the  hcLrinninir  and  the  end 
ninain." 

■■  Success. ■■  lie  said.  "  d-peiids  alio\c  all  on  the  inijires- 
sions  which  the  Ix  'jinniii'js  i.f  war  make  on  us  and  others. 
//  ('.V  ?if(issiiri/  tliiif  Ti  (  .sliniilil  In  till  (ithuh'i  il  piirtij.  (iallic 
suscept  ihilif  y  will  in\t  st  us  wiih  this  lojc  if  wc  announce 
before  Kuiopc  t  haf  we  (h  1  not  frar  I-"i  anee's  i  .Micial  t  hr(  at  s." 
These  line  wiPiiK  had  a  clu  i  li  [ii_r  inlluiiiee  on  his  i^ni-st^, 
Hoon  and  Mollke.  \vlioni  th(  readiiiLT  ot'  .\1m  k-  ii"s  ti  le'jram 
had  \isil>Iy  dipit  ■~s(  ,1.  and  their  spirits  now  ros,-  to  a  piti-h 
\vhi<'h  surpris.d  fli<-  ('hanc(  llor  himself.  "Tin!!  luid 
.sui!il>  nil/  Vi  I  III  (11  (I  till  If  jiliiisHii  III  ititnrj  II ml  ilrlnLi'i<^ 
(111(1  sjinli  in  (I  ifi'irr  ilnirjul  \ini."  TJieN  awaitid  with 
calm  conlideiice  the  eff( ct  ot'  the  t-  I'  LTraui  which  had  thus 
liceii  so  ele\(  rly  pateh'd  Up.  "  It  f .  !  1  liki-  a  t  hu  nderliojt ." 
said  Hi^marek.  ""  When  our  Kiiil'  liad  rec(i\i(|  a  hiimiha- 
tiii'j  tell  Mrani.  the  I'lms  t -ji'j  la  mi  inadi  tlic  l-'i'i  neh  liilii\e 
that  th'ir  ri  I  ilis,  lit  at  i\  I-  ]\:\i\  l.^cii  insultiil  li\  the  KiiiL.'. 
Thi-  honle\ard  loaf,  rs  d.-id-d  that  t!ii>  s,  ,r|  ,,f  tJiniLT 
could  not  Im-  to!,  rat'  d.  •  A  i^  ihn  !  A  \^  '!'n  '  "  ^'...ut.  d 
tin-  rahhlr.  //,/,  a,/s  th,  ,rf,,t  u,  ,wa/_/,/  >,,r.  it  was  t  he 
same  at  honii-  as  in  l-'iaiM'e."  ...  It  w  .e-  t  liis  d-  \  .  ].  eini-  nt 
that  ^urniised  (iianiont.  H--  did  n  if  mider^tand  liow, 
a!'tir  thiie.'s  had  tak'ii  a  pi-.ae.rn!  ter'n.  t!:!s  war  feeliuL,' 
siiddi  n!\-  ro  !■  up.  "  Sonii-  snu-t-r  s;ii!it  has  int  i-rN'-n- d,"" 
hi     said.       "■  What    ha-   hapiK  n-  il   .'  •'  1.         .'nd    Hi    neU'k. 

••  \s  a-  t  !ial   ■■  11:1- 1 ,  r  Si  lint  .' 


How  Bismarck  Caused  It  07 

TIk'  reason  why  Hismarck  so  frankly  related  how  lie  had 
falsilied  the  Kins  telejj^rain  is  easy  to  understand.  In 
his  resentment  at  having  fallen  into  disn^race  in  l.S'.X)  he 
wanted  to  rcven(fe  himself  on  William  II  by  lettin;^'  the 
whole  world  know  that  //  jiy/.v  he  (ind  not  Kln<^  W'iUiiun 
xvho  had  'vcldcd  (icrimintj  tofirlhrr,  and  that  he  had  done 
so  bij  brin^itv^  (ihoid  llic  rear  of  1870,  (lesj)ite  the  icsistanee 
of  Court  and  Pai'liatnent.  lie  considered  that  he  was 
entitled  to  perpetual  nrratitude,  hut  found  that  he  had 
been  ouilty  of  a  misealeulation  when  ^Villiam  II,  contrary 
to  his  expectation,  aecej)ted  his  resi<fnation  of  the  j)ost  of 
Imj)erial  Chancellor.  The  fallen  des|)<)t  then  tried  to 
vent  his  boimdlcss  fury  by  embittered  opj)osition. 

Many  of  Bismarck's  adherents  did  all  they  could  to 
shield  him. 

The  German  historian,  IIorst-Kohl,  in  his  criticism  of 
Bismarck's  Rcjlcctions  and  Reminiscences,  sj)eaks  with 
rcfrret  of  '"  Social  Democrats  who  have  no  patriotism  and 
show  incredible  effrontery  in  speaking  of  the  forgery  of 
the  Ems  telegram,  whilst  Bismarck,  with  Moltke's  and 
Boon's  approval,  only  strove  to  carrij  oui  a  royal  order  imder 
the  strong  influence  of  an  overwrouglit  sense  of  honour. 
.  .  .  Instead  of  thanking  the  guardian  of  our  national 
honour,  xcho  courageously  look  upon  Jiimself  the  respon- 
sibility wliicli  his  office  placed  on  his  sJioulders,  we  allow 
him  to  be  insulted  by  knaves  and  windbags."  Bismarck's 
organ,  the  Hamburger  Xachrichten,  asserted  that  Bismarck, 
by  modifying  the  telegram,  forced  France  to  take  the  initia- 
tive and  the  responsibility  for  the  rear  and  that  therefore 
he  deserved  icell  of  Jiis  country.  Had  he  acted  otherwise 
the  war  would  not  have  come  about.  This  war  was 
necessary  for  cementing  German  unity.'' 

Such  iironouncements  leave  one  sjieccliless  with  amaze- 
ment. When  German  unity,  which  seems  to  have  been 
the  goal  which  took  })reeedence  over  all  European  intt'i'ests. 
could  not  be  attained  by  the  mutual  efforts  of  the  German 
States,  it  was  deemed  right  and  just  to  reach  this  goal 

G 


98  Before.  Diring,  and  After  1914 

hy  i>r<)\('kin^  war  with  other  States  Dtiiinark  in  IhC-t, 
Aii^^tria  in  lb«ir.,  and  France-  in  ISTO  I 

Thm  Wire,  how(  vi  r.  many  pcopl*'  in  Citrnian)  wlio 
cinNinid  Hi^tnarck  \\>i  th(  lorj^ary  «•!'  thr  Kins  t«Ir<^rain. 
The  (itrnKiiiia  wrote  as  I'ollows  :  ""  KM-ry  ti(  rnian  nnist 
hhi^^h  with  shann  on  nahzin^'  from  the  testimony  of  the 
kite  I'haneellor  himself  that  (nrtnuni/  uv/.v  utradrlhili/ 
(It  (tilt  (I  in  the  matter  of  the  war  of  l.sTO,  which  HiNmarck 
not  only  wanted,  l)nt  shnnn<<l  no  means  of  j>ro\"okin^. 
The  ^'oo(l  (i(  rmans  wtnt  ont  to  hatth-,  spurred  on  hy  the 
con\iction  that  thiy  wire  li^ditini^f  a  sacnd,  j)atriotic 
(hfensi\c  war  against  the  eontt  iiijit  ihh-  and  mnMLrhteous 
attack  of  the  l-'rt  iich,  and  tliat  tluy  W(  re  (hfcn(lin<f  thi- 
honour  of  KiiiLT  \N  ilhani.  who  liad  heen  ^ri(  \t»usly  affronted 
hy  France.  All  these  «;ood  (iermans  wir<-  hut  }tupj)(ts 
in  tiic  lunuls  nf  llic  Mint  df  liUnxl  (uul  Iron.' 

The  I'li^sisdw  Ztituu'j,  could  not  conct  al  its  indij^Miat  ion 
wh<n  it  learntd  \vith  what  cynieisiu  HiMuarck  dared  to 
apjdaud  his  own  action.  ""FNtii  if  \sc  assume  that 
(i(  rmany  s  unity  could  not  he  <  nconipasscd  without  thi' 
war,  this  does  not  justil'y  a  r<--(<iit  in<,'  of  t)ie  ro\"al  telei^'ram 
\siiieh  coui' s  tt  rnhly  ni  ar  to  a  /'//\:'( ///. 

FiehkiHcht.  «  \  t  I-  since  the  aitielf  in  the  \i\if  Fttif 
/'/■e.v.s<-,  ne\tr  taihd  to  denounce  Ihsmari'ks  adnutted 
foTLjery  ;ind  delled  thi-  threats  of  prostiution  to  winch 
ins  f.  arlcss  d(  inmci;it  Ion  ^'a\'e  rise.  He  could  not  under- 
st.iiid  iiow  tlie  ■■  foriji  r  ""  iiad  dared  to  make  sncii  a  con- 
ttssinn.  I.i<  t»kn<ciit  diss(el((l  tiie  teleijrani  word  lor  word 
;iiid  eonnmnfid  on  it  as  follows:  '"This  for^^,  r\-.  tiiis 
r.i!-.'  ii'  \ss.  this  coiiNi  ision  oi"  peace  into  \\;ir.  is  aeel.iiiiK  d 
\>\  l'i-ni;irek  s  pain  (j\  rist  s  as  a  stroke  of  ;ji  Iiiiis.  .  .  . 
(  oiniiioii  linman  nioiality  eoiidi  miis  the  etiiii<  and  luands 
lli<-  crniiinal."  Ih  add<  d  th<-  rithction  that  (,iinian\'s 
iniit\   ami  t  h.    d-  rman   l-',inpir<-  are  loundid  on  a  |oi;_;(  r\  . 

'I'h'     r<sintniint    \shieh    Hisniaick's    fort,'er\'    aroused    in 

r'.uropc  may  he  ;_'atli«rid  floni  an  altiele  in  the  Dililij 
\tu  to  flic  lollowin^'  effect  :  "'  NotiiiiiL'  iias  so  isolated 
1  i.in('     as    the    ;_•(  n<  ral    Ix  Ik  I    tliat     she    Ik  Iprd    to    l)ring 


How  Bismarck  Caused  It  99 

ubout  the  war  for  paltry  reasons.  This  declarati(jn  of 
war  was  like  a  bolt  from  the  blue,  for  there  was  no  eloud 
on  the  horizon.  It  was  thought  that  the  Freneh  in  their 
incurable  vanity  insisted  on  fighting,  and  that  after  the 
withdrawal  of  the  Ilohenzollern  eandidature  they  wanted 
a  fresh  exeuse.  It  is  deplorable  to  learn  that  the  moral 
responsibility  for  the  grcalest  crime  of  history  has  so  long 
been  ascribed  to  those  with  whom  it  did  not  rest.'' 

T\\v  calculated  effect  of  the  forged  Ems  telegram  did 
not  fail  to  assert  itself.  The  public  were  informed  by 
all  the  newspapers  and  by  prominently  exhibited  placards 
of  the  sensational  news,  which  created  a  strong  wave  of 
feeling  in  Prussia  in  favour  of  war. 

Bismarck's  telegram  deceived  both  the  Germans  and 
the  French. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  forged  dispatch  w'as  a 
private  teh'grntn  from  Wolff's  Bureau,  not  an  official 
communication  from  the  Prussian  Government. 

If  the  French  Government  had  ascertained  the  real 
facts,  it  would  not  have  attached  the  same  importance 
to  the  telegram. 

But  Bismarck  was  cunning  enough  to  issue  Wolff's 
telegram  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  it  nj^pear  to  be  an 
ofTicial  comnumication. 

When  the  news  of  the  Ems  telegram  reached  Paris  it 
caused  an  extraordinary  commotion,  and  the  Government 
used  the  newsj)apcrs  in  its  pay  to  stir  u])  the  war  feeling 
to  a  still  greater  pitch.  The  streets  of  Paris  resounded 
with  cries  of  "  Vive  la  guerre  !  A  Berlin  !  A  Berlin  !  " 
It  was  a  terrific  orgy  of  the  maddest  chauvinism.  As 
for  the  Government,  it  Avas  now  able  to  shelter  itself  l^eliind 
"  irrcsistifile  public  opinion."' 

The  majority  of  the  deputies  thought  tliat  the  (Govern- 
ment had  acted  wisely,  that  King  William  luul  rejected 
all  advances,  that  France  went  to  war  witli  the  right 
entirely  on  her  side,  that  the  prejjarations  for  war  were 
com})lete  -  for  the  War  Minister,  Le  Btcuf,  had  given  every 


100        Hkfore,  During,  and  After  1914 


ussuraiK-f  to  thi>>  effect  and  that  rrancf  had  re  liable 
allies  Tur  Cirainont,  CDutraiy  to  the  tnith,  had  Lriveii 
them  to  understand  that  this  was  so. 

Hut  the  jKople  knew  nothiiiLT  luit!nr  al»<>iit  the  e\fnts 
at  Mins  and  wtre  unaware  that  thirc  was  discord  in  the 
(iovernrn*  nt.  that  Napoh  on  chanLTed  his  imnd  al>out 
niohilization  S(  \(  ral  tirn«  s  a  day,  and  that  s(\(  ral  of  the 
Ministers  wen-  oj)|m>s((J  to  war.  No  tlioutjht  was  i;i\(n 
to  the  I'aet  that  the  rt  jiction  ol"  the  Army  I'.stimates  a 
short  time  iir<  \iously  had  weakiiied  the  eonntry's  military 
ellieieney.  To  th<-  ()|)i»osit ion.  which  assented,  nnist  he 
ascribed  a  lari:<-  share  in  the  responsibilit \'. 

Napoleon  and  his  Mimsti  rs  were  but  (>\i|)[)ets  in  liis- 
marek's  hands,  and  with  their,  especially  (iiamont's, 
jM)litieal  incapacity  and  reekh  ss  and  t'oolish  actions,  thev 
Were  no  match  tor  the  (hanceljor's  trickerw  This  the 
for>:<ry  of  the  l-!iiis  tehuram  was.  ho\\r\(r.  so  clumsy 
and  I'oolharily  a  strata^'em  thai  it  would  onl\'  hav<-  net<led 
a  (la\''s  poNf  p(  iiKini  nt  of  the  ( io\  (  rnin(  lit  "s  di  elaral  ion  of 
war  to  asct  itam  moic  acciirateK  what  had  T' all\  pass((l 
Ix'tween  Km^r  William  and  Hi  ludetti  at  tin  last  eoii\trsa- 
tion  at  Mnis.  This  would  ha\i  lie<  ji  tin  «  a^ii  st  tJiiiiL:  i" 
the  World,  had  nen-dittrs  i.tiii-n  to  I'aiis.  wjiieh  ln^.k 
placi-  in  the  morninL.'  "f  .bi!\    I.").  Ix  en  aw.iit'd. 

(iramoiit  declared  at  the  (abiiKt  ('oiineil  on  .luh  1  t 
that  \sar  was  unaNoidablc  and  that,  if  it  w  t  re  decliiud 
after  the  te|eui-am  in  the  .\  arilili  ulscln  Zi  llinrj.  he  would 
not  foi- a  moiueht  ret  aiii  his  jiort  folio.  Le  Huuf  supjiortcd 
him   ami    urL'ed    immediate   iii")  >ili/,at  iou. 

A  proposal  to  r.  f.  r  t  he  mat  t  >  r  t  o  a  ('oi"jre-,s  was  appi'o\  cd 
b\'  Napol-  on.  but  111-  Mmpi'i  ^  opp(  1^.  1 1  i!  a  ■  b'  hil'  i^'iiotni 
nioii^.  ;iiid  iiiid'  r  li'  r  mlhe  iie--  tin  (''ii'icii  ■  ■•  >\\  r's(,|\,,| 
on  the  f.ital  st.p:  .a  d-ciai.itii.n  o|"  w.ir.  .^I.'  had  (u  <  n 
led  to  be||.\i  b\  e.  |-Iaiii  auilHti'iMs  i/'iMl.iL  tli:it  l'|-aiic( 
\sas  ^tron-_"r  than  I'rus.ia;  s(ie  |'.  ai'-il  the  (  ):  >i 'osit  i.  lU 
and    hi'pid    tliat    a    sueci  ■.^tIll    w.ir    W'liild    e^  iii--c  .hiiat  e    the 

d\tia^t\.        ()\.   |-    .N.ipol.iili    sh'      li.id    t!;.      stl'ilc/-   -t     mtlueUee. 

aiM  I    ( iiaiii'  lilt     .and    s<  \  i  i  a!    <  .1  li-  r     \I  u 


I       w  I  i(     alw  a\ 


How  Bismarck  Caused  It  101 

ready  to  t/wv  way  to  licr.  However,  the  Emperor  was  by 
no  iiuaiis  so  ea^^-r  for  tlie  war  as  tlie  Empress  and  had 
repeatedly  ninarked  to  OlHvier  that  he  was  determined 
to  do  nothin<^.  Furthermore,  lie  was  depressed  and 
enfeehh'd  by  liis  eonijjhiint  ;  lie  wanted  to  j)romote  his 
Liberal  projeets  in  peace,  and  laid  his  |)lans  before  the 
CouiU'il  accordingly.  When  he  had  finished  and  when 
the  Ministers  were  about  to  \'ote  on  the  subject,  he  was 
suddenly  taken  ill  and  had  to  retire  for  about  half  an 
hour,  and  when  he  returned  the  lMiij)r(  ss  had  so  wrouf^ht 
her  will  on  the  Ministers,  aided  by  the  tele^frams  from 
Ems  and  lieiiin,  that  the  votinif  showed  a  majority  of 
four  in  faxour  of  the  war,  Tiie  Emperor  had  to  ^nvc 
way,  and  on  .July  1")  the  Council  ratilied  the  declaration 
of  war  on  Prussia  drawn  up  by  Ollivier  and  Gramont.* 

Among  other  reasons  it  was  urired  that  Prussia's  King 
had  formally  refused  to  forbid  Prince  Leopold's  S|)anish 
candidature  for  the  futiu'c,  and  had  rudely  declined  to 
grant  the  French  ambassador  an  audience,  etc. 

It  is  a  remarkable  thing  that  ^vhen  Bcnedctti.  a  few 
hours  later  on  the  same  day,  July  15,  met  011i\'ier  and 
Ciramont  he.  aect)rding  to  Ollivier,  '■  ditl  not  tell  them 
any  news  of  what  had  hai)pened  at  Ems  and  noted, 
without  comment,  the  details  of  the  telegrams  and  reports. 
He  knew  absolutely  nothing  of  what  had  taken  place  in 
Berlin  and   of  Bismarck's  macliiuations."' 

Bi'uedetti  cannot  j)ossibly  have  I'ailed  to  state  that  he 
had  by  no  means  been  insulted  by  King  ^Villiam  or  cava- 
lierly dismissed  and  that  the  CTcrman  newsi)apers  had 
misstated  the  facts.  Here  was  another  distortion  of  facts. 
But  war  luul  been  decided  upon,  Beiicdetti's  presence  was 
found  inconvenient,  and  this  he  was  given  to  under>tand. 
Hence  he  was  not  heard  at  the  Council. 

Ollivier  declared  in  the  Legislative   Assembly  that   the 

King  (»f  Prussia  had  "  insulted  our  ambassador  by  declining 

to  grant  him  an  audience  ""  as  set  forth  in  "'  a  diplomatic 

dispatch   IVtMU    Prussia,"   etc,      Benedetti    luard   this,    but 

*  Cf.  ^Vclschi^g^r,  La  Guerre  dc  1870,  vol.  i,  pp.  llG-157, 


102        Before,  Dukinci,  and  Aiteu  1911- 

was  seated  in  the  gallery  and  was  powerless  to  enlighten 
the  House  as  to  the  faets. 

Tiiiers,  Ganihetta,  Jules  Favn-,  liuffit,  and  other 
nicnihirs  <>f  tiu-  Oj)j)o>itic)n  deniandtd  tlu'  j)r(idufti«)n  of 
the  disj)ateh  i>n  which  the  (iovernnunt  based  its  aetion. 
JJut  this  was  inij)(tssil)le.  ()lli\  icr  nun  ly  njxatcd  the 
Ciovirnincnt's  eoinplaints  about  King  Williams  refusal 
to  furnish  guarantees  for  the  future,  that  tin-  notitieation 
to  l'luro))e  of  tlu-  refusal  to  reeei\t'  France's  ambassador 
\\as  a  thing  not  to  be  tolerati-d,  etc.  Hut  he  did  not  say 
that  the  King  had  ])oint((l  out  that  the  negotiations  coulil 
be  eont  uuied  in  Ht  rlin  with  his  Ministi-rs.  The  leaders  of 
the  Left  entered  a  strong  and  courageous  proltst  <i<^(ii)ist 
tin  -ctir  (IS  Jiilli/  itiijuslijitd,  whertupou  they  were  greetid 
})y  the  Hight  with  all  sorts  i\\'  \  it  uperat  ions,  sudi  as 
■'Anti  patriots,"   "'Traitors.''   ""  i'lussians.""  rtc. 

(iaiulxtta  critiei/.rd  \  (  ly  s(  \  <  it  ly  the  \\h<ili'  eonduet  of 
the  (io\i  rnnii  lit  on  account  of  its  '"  hiek  ol'  pdlilieal 
li<  'Uesf  \ ,"  aud  on  account  of  it  s  at  f(  nipt  t  o  shil  t  t  he  rt  spoil - 
sibihty  f'ti-  tlie  war  on  to  the  ('hami)(  r.  lie  pointed  out 
th;it  the  Kins  telegram,  which  had  so  |)irturlied  the 
(i<'\  (  I  nm<  lit ,  had  bicn  madi'  known  to  Heuedttti  without 
his  lia\ing  IVlt   offended  llu  r(l»y. 

Tile  (io\(  inm<  nt  wanted  to  force  I-"ianc(  to  be  content 
with  unpio\((j  asseitious,  and.  deji|orabl\  e  noi;i;li.  1 ,"»'.) 
deputies,  as  aL'ainst  s  t-  of  tin-  ( )|)posit  ion.  \(«teel  aiiainst 
til-  eii  niand  \'<>v  the  pideluelion  e>t'  the-  t<|cniani  saiel  te> 
eoiiNiy  flic  iiisiilf  to  r'r.iiM'e  "s  liononi-.  The-  Hud^e  t  {\ui\ 
inittri  ji.il  onl\  M  (  11  t  lie  earlier  f  t  le  ;jiauis,  and  (iramont 
hail  ]i'>\  t'lld  tli'in  (  \e  i\  I  liuiu'.  but  olil\  \sliat  Ih-  t  l|ouL,dit 
MiitabI'.  and  lii-.  v.okJ  w.is  li(!i.\((|  witjioiil  d.miir.  it 
Is    \  e  r\     ic^M'  t  f  able    lliat    tin     { 'oi  n  1 1 1  it  t  (  e    elid    not     insist    mi 

|{enedetli     bejn;,;     hianl. 

.\e-eo[(liii:,'     to     \\  <  |sc|iii|i_'(  r.     who     was     pi(s(ii|     at     the 

dili.alis     ui     till      (  li.iiiibi  r    eliiiin^'     that     tiiilnilinl     tini<-. 

(  il'.inioiil    s    \\  hole   eoiiduel    was   dietatid    "   b\    the   ;i\vk\\;U'e| 

it  lilt  |i  III  in  w  hieli  he  was  |  J  ace  el  ;     in  t  he    f;iee  of  t  he  f  hriat  s 

of  lh'     l',\tr>  mits   anil  ot    tin    aiige  r  I'l    tip    ()pposition    he 


1870-71  AND  Peace  of  Frankfort       103 

had  no  alternative  but  to  seek  war.  .  .  .  Otherwise  he 
would  have  had  to  admit  that  he  had  '  begun  badly  and 
finished  badly  '  .  .  .  and  that  he  had  clumsily  fallen  into 
the  trap  sot  by  Bismarck  thr()U<jh  the  fault  of  an  unbalanced 
party  and  the  will  of  an  Empress  who  blindly  trusted  to 
our  strength  and  our  resources." 

No  fact  is  better  authenticated  in  history,  as  shown  by 
the  documents  referred  to,  than  that  the  war  with  France 
was  sought  l)y  Bismarck,  that  he  brought  it  about  by 
trickery  and  fraud,  although,  by  wounding  France's 
honour,  he  made  her  appear  the  attacking  party. 

The  forged  telegram,  having,  in  pc^int  of  fact,  led  to  the 
War  of  1870  with  all  its  consequences,  felt  up  to  this  very 
day,  up  to  the  World  War  of  101  !•,  constitutes  one  of  the 
most  terrible  crimes  of  history. 

The  War  of  1870-71  and  the  Peace  of  Frankfort 

The  war  so  fervently  desired  by  Bismarck,  Moltkc,  Boon, 
and  other  representatives  of  the  war  party  in  Prussia  n(nv 
came  to  pass  and  France  was  beaten.  No  wonder  I  The 
Avhole  of  Germany  supported  Prussia,  and  not  only  the 
North  German  Federation,  but  also  the  South  German 
States  of  Bavaria,  Wiirtemberg,  Baden,  and  Hesse  took 
part,  pursuant  to  the  alliance  of  1  8(50.  All  the  armies  were 
excellently  equipped,  and  Prussia  esjjccially,  who  had  long 
been  preparing  for  this  war,  possessed  a  superb  military 
organization  and  skilful  leaders, 

France,  (jn  the  other  hand,  was  without  allies  and  badly 
e(piipj)ed.  her  sujiply  of  armaments  had  in  a  large  measure 
been  exhausted  by  the  Mexican  campaigns  of  18G2-67,  her 
armies  were  inferior  to  those  of  the  Germans  in  numbers. 
and  several  of  her  generals  lacked  ability. 

The  best  proof  of  the  fact  tliat  France  and  her  (i()\'eru- 
mcnt  wanted  ])caee  and  did  not  contemplate  any  attack  on 
other  countries  was  the  complete  abset'.ce  of  preparations 
and  the  deficient  military  jirejiarediiess.  Tiiere  had  even 
been  a  reduction  in  the  Arinv  K^timates.     The  Minister 


104        Bkfork,  Dliuncj,  and  Aftku  1914 

of  \Var,  Lf  Ikiul",  luul,  a  tVw  diiy^  Ijcfort-  tlu-  (lisi)utt.-  al)out 
tlu-  Spanish  famlidatuif,  coiistiitrd  t«>  a  n trriu'liiiKiit  of 
tliirt(tii  iiiilliuii  I'laiirs  <>n  his  huduTt.  Later  t»u  pitil'ul 
j»r("it's  \\(  re  t"«  III  hroiiiiiiL.'  «'rth<-  (lihcti\i'  iiiihtaiy  or^Miii/a- 
tion  aiitl  th<  iiKiili  ijuatr  sii[)|)hrs  of  inniiit  ions,  clotlirs, 
food.  rtc.  on  thr  outluiak  of  war. 

1-Vaiicc  !aunch<(l  her  drchiratioii  of  war  on  Prussia  on 
.Iiily  r.>.  'V\\r  North  Ci(  iiuaii  Diet,  wliich  was  (juirkly  con- 
\rn<ti.  and  the  .Sotith  (it  rinan  Diets,  imhued  with  national 
f<  r\'oui\  jjranti  (1  all  the  <lemands  of  the  Cio\ernnunt .  It 
soon  I)' caine  clearly  e\  idenf  that  Henedeltis  and  .Stoffel's 
reports  in  l^ti^  as  to  I'russias  extensiv(  armaments  were 
true.  Moltke  now  siiliiuitted  to  Kin^  William  a  plan  of 
campaiiiu  aLfainst  I-'ranee.  pr<pai"ed  hy  the  Prussian 
(•<  n<ral  .Staff,  and  ask<(l  that  the  (ierman  forces  he 
ruohili/ed  and  dist  rihut  ( d  aceordiiiLily.  e\ir\  t  hiuL:  haviiiLj 
In  I  ti  woiked  out  in  the  minutest  detail.  This  j)lan  of 
Mollke's  \\a>  dul\'  carri((l  out.  .July  !«'.  (when  the  news  ni' 
the  d. civioii  ol'  the  l'"r«  neh  (io\(  rnna  lit  came  to  hand)  was 
the  (la\'  entei<(l  on  (  aeh  niohili/at  ion  oi'der  ;  (!e\(ii  days 
l.atf  r  the  entile  nioliili/.at  ion  was  com|ilited,  and  on 
Au;.'Ust  •_'  all  th'-  arnue^  stood  jmsttd  hetwtcn  the  Hhine 
and  the  .Saar.  Kiiiu'  \N  illiam  assniniuL:  supieme  eonuiiand. 
The  (.erman  torers  totalled  .ahont  loo.ooo  men.  a^auist 
whom  Napoleon  could  only  put  'joo.uiin  hk  n  in  the  ti(  Id. 

In  t  he  couiNe  of  a  few  wii  ks  t  he  j-'reiieh  W(  !•<■  di  fi  at  (  (1  in 
a  numhei-  of  act  ion--.  Th'  \'  lost  t  he  jirst  hat  t  le  on  Auuuist  I- 
at  \\  I  issi  nhuii/,  in  AU.tee,  wIkic  the  Ciown  i'rince 
I'r- d'  n<k  w.is  in  conunaiid  on  th'-  (iii'inan  sjd.  .  Then 
foll-W'd  Ml  r.ipid  sneers  h,n  tin  l.attl.s  of  Worth.  Saar- 
l.ni<k.  n.  M't/.  }{'  i-hdiol',  n.  I'oi  haeh.  ( ,  i  a  \  ,  j.  .1 1  e.  Si. 
l'n\  a^.  I  t  e.,  \\\i'  I '  t  Im  I  I  '  neli  w  >  |-<  d  I'  .;!  -  d  d-  ^pit .  Ii.  roie 
e\'  it  loll  ,,  w  III!  .t  an  >  nt  iri  ai  in\  iindi  r  Mai-hal  na/.ain<-  \v  as 
eoiiipt  !!<  (1  to  tak'-  ii  fuL"-  m  M't/.  A  Ik  \\  ;iliii\  w  .is 
eiill-ct'il  m  a.ll  h.et'  ai'd  eoniUiandid  li\  Napi'lioli  and 
Mar  lia!  M;,e\h!|,on.  hut  w  a  ■  h-  ,it.  n  m  t  h'  I  >at  I  I-  of  S'daii 
on  S'  pt .  iiiliM-  I  ,  \>.  h'  ri-upon  t  h<  !■  iil  i.  ss,  with  tin  in\  <  st  ed 
arni\     of    .s;',.0(to    ni'  n.    c.i  j  .il  ul.it  (  d    .an'l    the    I'anpi  ror    Mir 


1870-71  AND  Peace  of  Frankfort       105 

rendered  his  sword  to  King  William  (Se|)tenibcr  li).  He 
was  immediately  eondueted  to  the  eastle  of  Wilhelmshohe 
(near  Casst-l),  wlure  he  was  kept  a  i)risoner  until  the  eon- 
elusion  of  jH'aec  (whereupon  he  took  refuge  in  England, 
where  he  died  in  IST.'J). 

When  General  Wimpffen,  on  September  2,  negotiated  with 
Bismarck  at  Sedan  for  peace,  tiie  latter  deported  himself 
with  l)rutal  arrogance  and  assumed  an  offensive  and 
braggart  manner,  as  if  he  were  intoxicated.  The  incredible 
success  of  the  last  six  weeks  which  followed  upon  the  Ems 
telegram  had  gone  to  his  head.  '"  You  shall  never,"  he 
said,  "  forget  Sedan.  If  we  make  peace  now,  you  will 
begin  war  again  in  live  or  ten  years.  ]Vc,  in  conlriisl 
to  you,  art'  an  honourable  nation,  who  have  never  coveted 
conquest  and  only  ask  to  be  left  in  jxace,  if  you  will  but 
cease  disturbing  us  with  your  quarrelsome  disposition. 
Now  we  have  had  enough  of  it.  France  must  he  punished 
for  her  arrogance,  her  aggressive  temper,  and  her  vanity. 
W^e  must  have  territory,  fortresses,  and  frontiers  which 
will  safegiuird  us  from  further  attacks  on  your  part.  The 
party  in  France  rchich  en<iincered  iJie  uar  is  the  same  ])arty 
that  makes  and  immakcs  Governments  :  it  is  the  populace, 
the  journalists  ;  it  is  them  whom  we  want  to  pimish.  It  is 
on  this  account  that  we  must  inarch  on  Paris.''  He 
declared  further  that  Prussia  would  demand  an  indemnity 
of  4000  million  fnuics  in  addition  to  Alsace  and  German 
Lorraine  as  her  price  of  jx-ice. 

The  fact  alone  that  Count  Bismarck  Bolilen  on  August  It 
was  ap{)ointed  (iovtU'nor-Gcneral  of  Alsace  shows  that 
Prussia  regarded  this  jirovince  as  a  ])ennanent  jiossession. 

The  annexation  of  Alsace  and  (Jerman  Lorraine  by 
(Germany  was  at  this  time  being  urged  with  great  insist- 
ence l)y  the  German  newspapers  and  by  public  meetings. 

That  the  war  would  be  continued  until  Germany  reached 
the  desired  goal,  was  obvious.  On  Se]»teinbcr  .'5  orders 
were  issued  from  the  German  headquarters  that  two  armies 
were  to  march  on  Paris,  and  on  September  T.)  the  city  was 
invested  on  all  sides. 


106        Before,  During,  and  After  1911 

On  September  i  the  Empire  eol lapsed  under  the  weight 
of  popuhir  inchtznaticin.  Napoleon  was  dej)osed,  and  a 
Republic  was  proclaiincd  by  the  jxoplo  from  tlie  Hotel  do 
N'ille  in  Paris.  A  Ciovirmiunt  for  National  Dcfcnci'  was 
organized  imdcr  (ii-ncral  Troeliu,  i-omprising  the  following 
deputies  for  Paris  :  Jules  l-'avre.  Jules  Ft  rry,  liambetta, 
Arago,  (.'reiiiieux,  Pieard,  Roehefort.  and  others. 

The  Ciovermnent  deeiih-d  to  try  to  induce  foreign  Powers 
to  mediate  for  peace  with  (iermany  and  elected  Thiers, 
who  in  sj)ite  of  his  seventy- three  years  possessed  mori-  spirit 
and  energy  than  most,  as  its  rej)resentative.  On  Septem- 
ber ]'2  lie  started  on  a  journey  to  London.  St.  Pitersbiirg, 
\'iemia.  and  I'lorenee.  and  ma<li-  the  best  ol"  his  j)o\vers  of 
elo(jn<iiee,  adducing  the  most  cogent  reasons  in  long  con- 
versations \vith  the  Foreign  Ministers  in  those  capitals. 
lUi\  all.  regarding  inter\fntion  useless,  deeliin d  to  uk diafe. 
and  France  was  K  ft  to  her  o\sn  de\iees.  It  was  known  at 
the  (iernian  headipiai'ters  that  the  (Jreat  I'owers  would 
not  gi\'e  effect  to  their  Iritmily  eouns«  j  by  force  of  arms, 
aini  the  war  was  accordingly  continued  pursuant  to  the 
j)rearranged  j)lan  of  crushing  l-'i'ance.  .luhs  l'a\  re.  the 
Foreign  .Minister.  \isif((|  Hisinaick  (.S(  ])t(  uiIm  r  !'.•  and  'J(i) 

to  negot  iate  f'  )r  peace. 

lie  who  had  brought  about  tin  wai'  now  said  with  ills 
Usual  mastt-riy  hypocrisy:  ".til  I  -.caul  is  pidcf.  It  is 
not  (iermanx'  who  disturbed  it.  ^^lU  ha\e  :cllliiiiit  (•(iiisc 
dd'Uirtd  xiiir  on  ii.s  with  the  soh  object  of  di  jui:  i  ir^  //.v  of 
pari  (if  iiiir  cniiulri/.  .  .  .  We  know  that  yoii  will  iHAcr 
r<  hnqiush  youi-  jiohey.  that  you  will  ri  ^.-aiu  s|  r,  ii;^'t  ji  si.l(l\- 
that  you  nia\-  afla^k  us  once  m<in.  (ifruianx  has  iii.t 
soujjht  this  opp'irtuiut\  ;  she  asaijid  j|i  is(  If  of  il  /,,/  Ikt 
mill  Mil)  1 1/,  and  this  saff  t  \  can  not  1m-  a->  .ni(  d  w  it  lii  iwt  <  <  ^  v/',// 
(if  trrrifnr)/." 

I-'a\ri'.  \\li'>-<-  (io\<Tiuii' nf  could  H'lt  eoiis(  nl  to  the 
(V  ssion  of  f  -  1  iitopN  ,  thus  ^'aUH  <1  ri'ifhihL'  b\  hi.  \i^it  to  fin 
iliiplaeabl<    (  lialic  llor. 

\N  liilst    I'raiici     \sas   stiaiiun^'   e\(i\    ip  r\c   to    ..(nic   b\ 
n'L'otiatioM    an    aiiiii^tiei     and    tlii-    support    <.f   tli<     inutral 


1870-71  AND  Peace  of  Frankfort       107 

Great  Powers,  tlic  German  armies  continued  their  irre- 
sistible advance.  Toul  fell  on  September  20,  Strasburg  on 
the  27th  after  a  resistance  which  ev'en  the  enemy  charac- 
teri/ed  as  honourable  and  heroic.  On  October  5  King 
William  moved  his  hcadcjuarters  to  Versailles.  Orleans 
was  taken  on  October  11,  and  Soissons  capitulated  on 
October  15. 

The  army  shut  up  in  Met/,,  under  the  conuiiand  of  the 
incompetent  Bazaine,  was  compelled,  vanquished  by 
hunger  and  without  making  any  serious  attenijjt  to  drive 
the  enemy  away,  to  capitulate  on  October  27. 

On  his  rctiM'n  from  his  journey,  Thiers  was  instructed 
by  his  Government  to  approach  Bisnuirck  with  a  view  to  an 
armistice.  Several  meetings  took  place  during  the  early 
days  of  November,  but  Bismarck's  conditions  were  such 
that  the  Government  could  not  accede  to  them. 

Gambetta,  Minister  of  the  Home  Department,  accom- 
panied by  his  collaborator  S})uller,  left  the  besieged  city 
on  October  7  in  a  ball(K)n,  and  organized  the  defence  in  the 
provinces  as  a  sort  of  voluntary  dictator.  He  engaged  the 
assistance  of  the  engineer  Freyeinet,  and  between  them 
they  did  wonders.  Their  improvised  armies  rehabilitated 
France's  military  honour,  sullied  by  unworthy  capitula- 
tions. Although  these  armies  could  not  in  the  long  rim 
resist  the  enemy,  they  earned  world-wide  admiration,  and 
evt'U  Moltke  could  but  acknowledge  his  respect  for  their 
ability  to  defend  their  country  for  several  months  and 
M'in  several  victories.  Generals  Paladines  and  Faidhcrbe 
were  victorious  at  Coulniiers  and  Bapaume,  but  the  Paris 
army,  imder  General  Ducrot,  fought  the  bloody  but 
indecisive  battle  of  Chami:)igny.  Mans  had  to  be 
evacuated  (January  12,  1871),  and  the  northern  army  was 
beaten  at  St.  Quentin  (January  19).  Bel  fort  was  defended 
by  Colonel  Denfcrt.  Bourl)aki  gained  a  victory  at  \'ille- 
sexel,  but  did  not  succeed  in  raising  the  siege  of  Belfort. 
He  tried  to  reach  Lyons,  but  was  linallN'  forced  by  the 
enemy  against  the  Swiss  frontier,  over  which  his  army  was 
linally  driven,  and  it  was  thereu)K)n  disarmed. 


108        Before,  During,  and  Aiteh  1911 

The  txcitniunt  in  Paris  ^rvw  day  hy  day,  rspccially 
aftiT  the  Gtrnuins  ht^aii  on  Jainiary  ."i  to  l)onil)ai(l  tiie 
city.  A  nnnibir  of  honscs  wrrv  destroyed,  food  htcainc 
scarcf,  famine.'  and  sickncNS  Ix  jjan  to  aNS(  rt  tlunist  1\  is  and 
caiisfd  ^Tcat  mortality.  Att(iii[)ts  were  made  to  wrist 
tlu'  powtT  from  tl)c  I'roN  isional  (io\rrnmrnt  and  plair  it 
in  the  hands  of  th«-  Soriahst  j)artir^. 

The  (ioNirninrnt  chcidrd  that  Fa\ii-  should  onrc  nuar 
ncL'otiatc  with  IJismarck  for  an  armistice  (January  '_*.'{),  and 
in  the  end  orihrs  were  ;,M\'en  to  suspi  nd  the  hoinhardment 
(Jaiuiary  IT.).  On  Jatniary  I'S  a  three  weeks'  armistice 
was  sinriicd  and  the  cajiit  ulat  ion  of  l*aiis  was  disenssed.  a 
newlv  elected  National  Assembly  Ix  ini,'  con\ened  at 
IJorihaux  to  di  eide  ahout  [teace  or  war. 

The  National  Assembly  on  Fihiuaiy  1 'J  elected  Thiers 
as  chief  of  the  e.\ec\iti\"e  [)o\sir.  and  instructid  him  and 
the  Ministt  rs  I''a\re  and  I'icard,  to  oju  n  pt  ace  negotiations 
at  \'ersailles. 

.\fter  six  da\s"  nej^'ot  iat  ions  the  peace  preliminaiies  were 
si;_Mied  on  I'ehiuary  *_'♦;  by  the  plenipol  eiil  iari(  s  ;  the 
National  .\ssetiilily  ratilitd  them  on  March  1.  One  i>\'  the 
conditions  was  that  a  part  of  l*aris  should  be  occu|iied  b\' 
(ierman  troops  (.'{(). noo  men). 

The  principal  peace  conditions  were:  Crssittn  nf  Alsace 
mill  (i(  riihtii  Lorrdiiif  -AWf]  payment  of  ."iono  inUluin  /nines  as 
war  indemnit  y. 

The  linal  [xaei-  conditions  were  to  be  diseiissed  in 
Hruss(  Is.  After  an  abiiiti\e  conf.  i( nee  in  thai  city,  a 
meifiii^  was  arraiiL'i  (1  at  l-'rankfurl  bi  Iwi-  ii  !>isinai(k  and 
I'"a\ri',  etc.,  \sli<ii  pi  aei-  was  linalK'  c 'iielui  Ird  ;  this  was 
the  IN  ace  of  I'raiikfoil  (May  Id,  1  s?  1  ).  wiiieli  cMnrimMd 
the  pri  liiuniai'ii  s  i>\'  \'rr-aill<s  and  d<tii-min'<l  ^undi\ 
d'tails  in  eonii'  xh  in  t  li'  ii  \\  it  h. 

I'nissia  ha\inL'  rrecix.d  Ibc  suppoit  of  all  the  (Hfiiian 
States  in  the  war,  tli'-  task  r<niainid  of  aec  iinplislnn^r 
(i'rm.aiiNs  miit\,  whn-li  "U>  \<(\  tlii  lust  ;_Miar.iiit  (  >  -  fur 
(i<rman\'s    safetv    and    L'leat  n- ss.      ()ii    l{i^mar<'k's    uiitia 


1870-71  AND  Peace  of  Frankfort       109 

tive  representative  Ministers  of  the  four  South  German 
States  visited  Versailles  and  diseussed  the  terms  for  joining 
the  North  Gernum  Federation,  it  being  linally  agreed  that 
all  the  States  jointly  should  eonstitute  the  German  I'iinpire 
(Novend)er  1870).  Thus  was  created  a  nnc  (icryntui  Im- 
perial realm,  and  on  the  proposal  of  Ludwig  II  of  Bavaria 
the  German  princes  and  free  cities  conjointly  conferred 
upon  William  I  the  dignity  of  Km{)eror,  a  ceremony  which 
took  j)lace  at  Versailles  during  the  siege  of  ]*aris  on 
January  IS,  1871. 

When  I  was  in  (iermany  and  France  in  February  and 
March  1871  I  had  the  opj)ortunity  of  seeing  and  hearing 
much  about  the  war  and  its  termination,  and  I  relate  below 
a  few  incidents  and  experiences  which  throw  a  light  on  the 
great  struggle.* 

I  reached  Paris,  after  having  stayed  with  the  besiegers, 
on  the  day  that  the  caj)ituIation  took  place  and  remained 
until  the  out})reak  of  the  Comnume  (March  18).  It  was 
surprising  to  sec  how  resigned  the  French  can  be.  They 
s{)oke  openly  of  their  own  faults  and  generally  blamed 
France  herself  in  a  large  mcasiu'c  for  the  misfortune. 
Napoleon  and  his  Government  having  allowed  the  country 
to  drift  into  war,  but  having  entire!}'  neglected  to  ])repare 
for  it.  Every  one  tried  to  envisage  calmly  and  sensibly 
what  had  ha}'»[)cned.  The  suj)erior  discipline  and  ability 
of  the  Prussians  were  praised,  and  yet  j)eoj)le  asked  them- 
selves if  the  French  would  have  been  l)caten  had  not  the 
Germans  for  many  years  past,  everywhere  and  among  all 
classes  of  the  community  in  France,  iiisiituted  a  highly 
organized  syslem  of  ef^pionage.  It  was  known  that  no  fewer 
than  seventy-two  Germans  had  been  emjih)yed  in  the 
Government  Departments — many  in  the  War  Ollice  that 
they  had  been  in  correspondence  with  General  Blumentlial, 
and  that  Marshal  Bazaine  had  long  had  a  Prussian  oilicer  as 

*  I  wrote  at  the  time  tliree  war  letters  to  AJtonJAudei  (March 
15,  17,  and  20,  ISTl),  wliieli  I  will  refer  to  in  the  course  of  my 
narrative. 


110        Befor?:,  Dlrinc,  and  After   1914 

his  servant  I     Prussian  olliccrs  had  also  bten  oniploycd  in 
many  very  modest  situations  in  Paris. 

In  this  way  the  Germans  had  obtained  a  thorou<;h  insight 
into  Franee's  cit  iVnecs  and  their  short eomin<^s.  \Vlu'n  their 
armies  stootl  nady  <>n  the  front i(r,  all  olliecrs  and  non- 
eommi^sioned  tjlliecrs  had  sjxeial  maps  of  the  l«)ealities 
wlure  the  war  was  to  he  fought.  'J'lusi'  maps  had  not  been 
preparetl  in  a  wcrk,  or  after  the  declaration  of  war.  Many 
were  found  on  killed  and  woundeil. 

I  was  further  infornud  that  yoimg  (iermans  who  had 
been  in  Paris  in  olliees,  or  for  ling\iisti('  studies,  etc.,  had 
always  industriously  devoted  their  Sundays  to  l■xeur^ions 
in  all  possible  direetions  ;  these  young  men,  who  later 
formed  i)art  of  the  invading  forces,  doulitlcss  knew  the 
country  bettt  r  than  many  a  Frenchman. 

It  may  be  mentioned  that  in  ISC'.)  no  fewer  than 
rjo, ()()()  Ciermans  resided  in  Paris  l"or  varying  lengths 
of  time. 

I  spoke  to  several  Prussian  soldiers  (Hraiideiilturgers) 
statioiud  outside  i'aris  during  the  armistice,  just  before  the 
signature  of  tin-  peace  preliiuinarii  s  ;  they  W(  re  in  a  \ery 
jiacilic  mood  and  told  me  that  the  opjxising  outposts  had 
with  the  utmost  frieiidliiK  ss  exchanged  articles  ol'  food. 
drank  out  of  one  another's  bottles,  etc.  Had  it  eit  pendt d 
on  them.  th<y  said,  there  W(»uld  ha\c  Itee  n  no  war  with 
I'rance-. 

'■  Nod(»ubt  it  was  Hismarck."'  I  remarked,  ""  w  he)  \vante  el 
It." 

"Jii.  hcliss!  .Ill,  (U  r  liisiiuiril:.  (U  r  isl  tin  7'iiifils 
K,rl !"     (--.Xh.  y.  s,  Hismare'k  !     11-  "s  .i  ehvil  ..f  ;i  fellow  :  ■■) 

t  hiV   ri|)lie  el. 

I  also  spoke-  to  m:iii\  jiirsoiis  of  i(liie;itioii  m  ( ,c  ini.inx 
anel  foimel  that  till-  pi  opie  of  ll.iiio\er,  Ha'lrii.  and  \\\i\ 
temberg  hateel  Prussia  anil  In  r  pohe'\-  nios(  e'ordialK', 
allhoui^h  they  e'oji  .nh  red  Hisniare-k  a  giant  ainougst 
state  iiieii.  They  ri  gareli  (1  it  as  an  iiiitrii'j,(  on  the-  jiart  i^'i 
Prussia  to  ha\c  lite  ralK  jmiid  the  otln  r  (ii  riiiaii  stat<  s  to 
take'    part    m    tin-    war.      In    IIano\ei-,    in    .Ianuar\\    literal 


1870-71   AND  Peace  of  Frankfort       111 

demonstrutions  took  place  against  the  new  Emjjcror, 
and  the  civic  magistrates  refused  to  sign  the  address 
to  the  Emperor  whicii  the  Prussian  ollicials  there  had 
drawn  up. 

Many  titled  Prussians  were  difrcrcntiy  disposed  and 
expressed  themselves  with  supine  arrogance  on  the 
Parisians'  defence  of  their  capital.  They  assured  me 
that  it  was  only  through  the  Emi)eror  William's  extra- 
ordinary forbearance  that  the  bombardment  was  deferred  ; 
it  might  have  taken  place  many  months  earlier,  but  the 
same  spirit  of  clemency  found  it  more  humane  to  reduce 
the  city  by  starvation.  They  asserted  that  the  Germans 
had  taken  several  forts  and  that  it  was  quite  proj)er  that 
they  should  march  in  triimiph  into  Paris  as  into  a  con- 
quered city.  ■'  The  defence  was  not  such  as  to  deserve 
any  consideration,  for  the  resistance  had  really  been  quite 
chimerical.''  I  was  able  to  inform  them,  however,  that 
the  Germans  had  not  taken  a  single  one  of  the  forts, 
and  I  took  it  for  granted  that  vmtrue  reports  had  been 
circulated  in  order  to  justify  the  desired  triumphal  entry 
into  Paris. 

Parisians  described  to  me  the  horrors  of  famine  and  told 
me  that  for  the  last  five  weeks  they  had  never  ceased  to 
be  hungry,  and  that  during  the  last  two  weeks  they  had 
eaten  hardly  anything  but  the  inadequate  and  horrible 
black  bread.  Everything  edible  had  been  consumed,  the 
rats  in  the  sewers,  the  dogs,  the  animals  in  the  Jardin 
d'Acclimatation,  etc.  The  sick  did  not  recover,  there  was 
a  lack  of  medicaments  at  the  hospitals,  the  mortality 
rose  and  amounted  toAvards  the  end  to  more  than  5000 
weekly. 

To  the  famine  and  its  ravages  were  added  the  terrors  of 
the  bombardment,  which  kc])t  the  population  in  a  per- 
petual state  of  nerves.  The  inhabitants  were  j)artieularly 
incensed  at  the  Prussian  guns  being  trained  on  the  Pantlieon 
and  Saint  Sulpiee  churches  and  on  the  Val-de-Grace 
Hospital,  all  of  which  were  hit  during  the  bombardment, 
until   General   Troehu   threatened   to   lodne   the   Prussian 


112        Befokk,  l)rHiN(;,  and  After  1014 

prisoners  in  tlu-  \'al  (U-  Ciraco  if  the  l)(>inl)ar(lincnt  of  such 
building's  did  not  iraM-. 

.\ltliou<,'li  I'aris  was  not  takiii,  Hisniart'k  dcnianiltd  in  tlu* 
Knij)iror"s  naint-  a>  part  of  the  terms  of  capitulation  that  a 
(it-riiian  army  of  ."{o.uoo  mm  sliould  march  into  Paris  and 
tluit  tht\  shouUl  l)i-  all<>\V(d  to  \  isit  the  ;,'all(  ii(  s  at  tlic 
Lou\re  and  the  Hotel  des  Invalides.  Instead  of  honouring' 
a  l)ra\'e  oppdnent,  it  wa-^  intended  that  the  I'arisians 
shoidd  he  humhled  on  account  of  their  patriotism  and  their 
valiant  r(  si•^tance.  Thiers  and  Kavr«-  expressed  their 
distrust  and  their  hars  that  the  sin;ht  of  the  enemy  would 
exasperate  tjic  population  to  the  j)oint  of  li^ditin^'  when 
Paris  was  to  op«  n  lier  ^'ates  which  the  enemy  could  not 
hreak  down,  lint  it  was  no  use;  the  Prussians  wire  so 
ea::er  for  this  triumph  that  Bismarck  ai:r( cd  in  return  to 
France's  r*  tent  ion  of  t  he  fort  ress  of  Hell'ort  which  had  not 
heen  taken  either  and  in  the  (rid  the  |.rot(  sts  were  o\(  r 
ri<lden.  Bismarck  had  reckoned  on  leni,'fhy  deliherations 
in  the  Natiiiiial  .\ssenij)l\-.  so  that  the  (Jerman  arm)'  corps 
mit,'ht  relieve  i.U'-  another  in  Paris  and  all  miu'lit  thus  ha\f 
the  pliasure  of  inspectini,'  the  wt  .nih  rt'ul  cit\-.  I{ul  the 
National  Assemldy  found  it  necessai\  to  aeeipf  the  peace 
terms  inunediaf  ely.  so  that  the  (it  rman  sta\'  in  Paris  only 
last  ((1  a  couple  of  (la\  s. 

I  was  a  witness  of  this  remarkahle  e\(  nt  and  was  in  the 
IMace  de  la  ('iiiic"i'(le  and  the  Champs  l-",|ys((  s  \\  hen  t  he 
(ierman  regiments  madi  tlnii-  enlr\  on  March  1,  1  s7 1 . 
Be\c,ii(l  this  area  tlie\  cMiild  not  p(  netiate.  as  the  rest  <>( 
the  cit\  was  eiimplet.  |\  shut  off  li\  1  Kii'i'ieades  and  si  utius 
at  t  h'-  eiit  i-aiie-  s  to  all  st  ii  et  s.      On  t  he  ri  coin  mi  iidat  ion  of' 

the     authorities     tin-     population     aliseut-d     themse|\(s     com 

pl't'l\  and  remaiip  d  mdiffei-.nt  and  eahii.  ()!il\  a  I'.  \s 
for(  iuii<  l-s  and  s(.iii<  hoolp-aiis  and  otli(r  p^isdiis  nt'  the 
lowir  class,  s  s!,,,\s,(|  th<ins(|\.  s  in  the  sti,  ,t>  throUL'h 
which  the  ( ;.  iiuair-  w  -  l'  to  pa-s.  1,\  (  l\  t  Ihiil'  was  ( |uii  t , 
I  \c.  pt  |oi-  a  coiipli-  ot  ladi'  s  of  a  ei  itaiii  class  ((  \  i(h  ntly 
(iirmaiis)  who  took  it  u[Hin  tli<m>il\>s  to  ]ia\-  deference 
to    some    (iirman    oHie.  is,    \s  her.  up. -n    they    were    Iiusthd 


1870-71  AND  Peace  of  Frankfort       113 

asitlc  into  a  side  sticcL  by  uii  ciirugcd  mob,  \s\h>  [nmislicd 
tlicin  for  their  iinpiidt'iice  by  beating  thcni  and  tearing  off 
tlieir  clothes. 

Practically  all  tlic  inhabitants  remained  indoors  and  jnit 
on  mourning,  wliich,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  many  had  worn 
ever  since  the  capitulation,  and  black  Hags  were  ex- 
hibited from  many  houses.  Crepe  had  also  been  tied 
over  the  faces  of  the  statues  in  the  Place  de  la  Concorde, 
and  the  impression  taken  away  by  the  Germans  must  on  tiie 
whole  have  been  rather  melancholy.  Strasburg's  statue 
was  covered  with  wreaths  and  French  Hags  to  commemorate 
the  heroic  defence  of  the  city. 

It  had  been  intended  that  the  German  army  should  on 
the  occasion  of  this  triumphal  entry  march  through  tlu- 
magniiicent  Arc  dc  Trioinphc  (erected  in  memory  of 
France's  innumerable  victories),  but  this  plan  was  foiled  by 
a  dense  mass  oi^  gcnnins  who  completely  blocked  the  passage; 
and  would  not  yield  an  inch,  so  that  the  army  was  obliged 
in  order  to  avoid  violence  and  possibly  bloodshed,  to 
march  past  by  the  side  of  the  monument.  Besides,  it  did 
not  witness  the  triumphal  procession  in  its  usual  state, 
having  been  covered  over  with  boarding  in  order  to  protect 
the  sculptures  from  the  bombardment,  liut  what  the 
conquering  army  did  see  was  the  word  \'EXGEAXCE  I 
traced  in  letters  half  a  yard  deep  on  one  wall  of  tlie  monu- 
ment. 

Yes,  vengeance  was  at  that  time  the  order  of  the  day 
throughout  France.  All,  young  and  old,  men  and  women, 
retained  this  feeling  for  many  years.  How  could  it  be 
otherwise  ?  How  unjust  had  been  the  conduct  of  Prussia's 
dictator,  Bismarck,  when  France  ever  since  the  disaster 
of  Sedan  and  Napoleon's  capture,  time  after  time  asked 
for  peace  on  the  pica  that  it  was  the  Emperor  and  his 
Government  who  had  issued  the  declaration  of  war,  and 
that  those  who  after  Sedan  had  been  at  I  lie  head  of  the 
Republic — Thiers,  Jules  Favre,  Gambetta,  Jules  Ferry, 
and  others— had  protested  against  the  icar  ! 

Besides,  had  not  the  just  and  righteous  Crown  Prince 

11 


114        Hi:roiu:.   Dlrinc;.  and  After  1<)1  t 

Frcilciii  k  il<.i!:ut  il  iii  his  ]inic'laination  to  the  iiihaljitants 
of  Lorraim-  at  the  be^Miinin^  ol"  the  war  that  "  Germany 
is  wai^iiiL'  war  aLrauist  the  Kinj'ert»r.  not  airainst  the  French 
nation  '  " 

Hut  the  "  HIoikI  and  Iron  Chanei  Hor  "  thought  other- 
wixc  and  wanted  to  eru^h  France  ami  Innnhle  the  Frc-nch 
jHojih-  to  the  (hist. 


XI 

ANNEXATION  OF  ALSACE-LORRAINE  THE  CAUSE 
OF  THE  FRANCO-RUSSIAN  ALLIANCE  AND 
THE  MONSTROL^S  SPREAD  OF  .AHLnWRISM 
IN  EUROPE,  AND  ONE  OF  THE  CAUSES  OF 
THE  WORLD  WAR  OF  1914 

The  civilization  of  an  enlightened  era  demands  tliat 
policy  should  be  founded  on  the  righls  of  nation.^  and  their 
free  zcill,  not  on  racial  considerations,  Avhich,  as  I  have 
pointed  out  earlier  in  this  work  (pp.  7-1,3),  are,  moreover, 
exceedingly  obscure  and  often  based  on  the  })urest  fictions. 

The  Alsatians  had  during  the  union  with  France  become 
a  part  of  the  French  nation,  accepted  French  culture,  and 
felt  themselves  to  be  Frenchmen,  although  they  spoke  the 
Gernum  language. 

The  word  "  nation  ''  cannot  cursorily  be  dismissed  as 
meaning  race  or  descent  ;  it  is  a  gradually  develojx-d 
cultural  conception  with  many  contributory  elements. 
In  certain  countries,  it  is  true,  the  term  "  nationality  '' 
has  been  identified  with  the  term  "  State,"  and  other 
countries  have  become  in  the  course  of  centuries  a  niclling- 
pot  of  different  nationalities  which  have  become  a  concordant 
whole  zvith  common  traditions,  a  common  history,  and  common 
interests. 

Although  the  term  "  nation  "  is  primarily  associated 
with  conmion  descent,  it  is  often  characterized  l)y  a 
consciousness  of  afiinity  in  matters  of  polities  and  language, 
when  in  the  course  of  development  an  intimate  coalescence 

115 


IIG        Hkfoue.  DrRiNG,  and  After  191 1 

has  taken  place  in  the  public  mind  and  produced  a  real 
feeling  of  nationality. 

Many  Frenchmen  are  of  foreign  descent,  but  iiavc  never- 
theless allowed  tlunisi  Ivis  to  l)e  absorbed  into  the  French 
nation  and  feel  themselves  to  be  Frenchmen.  Thus  the 
famous  statesman  E.  Spuller,  Minister  of  Education  in 
Gambetta's  Cabinet,  and  an  ardent  patriot,  had  (.rrinan 
blood  in  his  veins,  his  father  having  come  fnun  Haden. 

It  would  be  unfair  to  j>Kad  what  has  hai)pcii( d  in  the 
past,  under  other  political  conditions,  in  proceeding  in  a 
more  recent  era  to  exact  retribution.  Conquest  and 
annexation  are  not  undertaken  by  a  ci\ilized  State  in  our 
time  without  incurring  the  severe  indictment  of  public 
opinion  and  the  hatred  and  revmgeful  feelings  of  the 
injured   j)eoples. 

If  Germany  were  to  demand  the  subjugation  of  all 
states  and  provinces  wliich  formi  rly  ixlongrd  to  the 
old  German  Empire  on  the  plea  of  "  old  proi»iirtorsliip  "' 
although  the  Gernumy  of  liSTO  was  by  no  nu  ;iii^  the  same 
as  the  old  Empire  the  whole  of  Lorraine.  Holland, 
Switzerland,  Italy,  (te.,  might  be  coveted  ^^ith  eijual 
justice.  Nay,  more  than  that,  the  (i(  rmanie  eoncpusls 
of  the  fifth  century  might  also  be  pK  aded,  for  the  N'lsigotlis 
took  Si)ain,  the  liurgundians  Southern  I'Vanee,  and  the 
Ostrogoths  under  Theodoric  took  Italy,  so  that  G(  rmany 
might,  with  (iermanistie  logic,  lay  claim  to  these  ancient 
(iermanic  possessions  as   well  I 

As  regards  .Msaee,  this  pro\ine('.  although  (iermanic  in 
race  and  language,  might  ((jualjy  \\(11  be  considered  as 
belonging  to  l'"ranec,  s(cing  that.  Ix  Tmic  it  was  taken  by 
peoples  of  the  (iermanic  race,  it  \\;is  ('(  Itie. 

It  was  a  somewhat  pri cai  :■  )us  pohey  which  Germany 
embarked  upon  when  jileaduig  (iermanism  as  ;i  rcasim 
for  elainung  certain  pro\jnees,  Imp  m  that  ease  the  Sla\s 
might  on  the  j)lea  of  .Slavism  d( maiid  e(  rtain  countries 
and  provinces  which  formerly  wi  re  Slav  but  have  been 
occupied   by   peojiles  of  German   race.     On   this   prineii)le 


Annexation  of  Alsace-Lorraine        117 

Prussia  must  not  be  surprised  if  Posen  attempts  to  eman- 
cipate herself,  and  Austria  will  have  to  [)ut  up  with  Galicia 
and  several  other  Slav  provinces  detaching  themselves  from 
the  Austro-Hungarian  Empire. 

Bismarck  might  well  be  congratulated  and  might  well 
be  proud  of  being  the  i)rime  creator  of  Germany's  unity 
through  the  war  with  France,  and  Germany  might  well 
feel  conscious  pride  in  the  magnificent  peace  terms  which 
she  extracted  from  the  defeated  side.  But  the  Peace  of 
Frankfort  was  no  guarantee  for  the  future  ;  on  the  con- 
trary, it  caused  the  deepest  resentment  in  France  against 
the  Germans,  or  ratiier  against  the  Prussians.  At  that 
time,  and  long  before,  it  was  the  fashion  in  the  German 
Press  to  call  the  French  dcr  alle  Erbfeind  der  dcuischen 
Nation  (the  old  hereditary  foe  of  the  German  nation). 
Did  not  Bismarck  realize  that  the  war  which  he  called 
into  being  and  the  harsh  peace  terms  laid  down  by  him 
would  heighten  the  animosities  of  the  French  and  inspire 
them  with  the  hope  of  vengeance  ?  The  peace  brought 
about  no  reconciliation,  as  Bismarck  was  soon  to  realize. 
lie  wrote  on  February  2,  1874,  to  Arnim,  the  German 
ambassador  in  Paris  :  "  The  openness  with  which  the 
national  hatred  against  the  Germans  has  been  fanned  and 
expressed  by  all  parties  in  France  since  the  Peace  of 
Frankfort  j^crmits  no  doubt  but  that  every  Government, 
to  whatever  party  it  may  belong,  will  regard  vengeance 
as  its  principal  raison  d'etre.  The  only  point  in  doubt 
is  the  time  that  the  French  will  need  to  restore  their 
armies  and  pre})are  alliances  which,  in  their  view,  will 
enable  them  to  reneiv  the  Jigld." 

It  was  thought  in  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Frederick 
(1888)  that  this  humane  monarch  desired  a  ])eaceful 
settlement  regarding  Alsace-Lorraine  whereby  friendly 
relations  between  France  and  Germany  might  Ix"  brought 
about.  Ribot,  who  was  at  that  time  Foreign  Minister  in 
France,  stated,  in  fact,  that  a  steji  in  this  direction  had 
actually  been  taken  daring  Frederick's  reign.     A  suggestit)n 


118        ni:FORE,  During,  and  Ai^er  1914 

had  ht'tii  niade  to  let  Ahacc-Lorraiiic  liccoinc  a  neutral 
r  luu'.rii  tliis  plan  had  many  adherents  in  Franco  and 
it  liad  also  hrm  j)r(>|)(»si d  not  to  touch  uj)nn  tlic  Alsace 
(jU'  *:nn,  hut  only  to  1(1  Lorraine,  which  is  a  French 
country,  he  returned  to  France  a  plan  which  (ianihetta 
supj)t)rted  and  which  later  on  was  mooted  hy  J.  Femaitre. 
In  return  (ierniany  was  to  receixc  some  colonial  possession. 

Hisuiarck  rejected  with  ^Mcat  cmj)hasis  tlie  idea  ol" 
Alsaci-  Lorraine  hecominj;  a  neutral  Slate  like  Swit/,(  rland 
and  IJelijium  and  thus  creating'  a  sort  of  huffer  stretehinu' 
from  t!ic  Alps  to  the  North  Sea.  Such  an  arrangement 
would,  in  his  opinion,  he  iffective  in  |)re\-ent  iiiLj  (iermany 
from  attacking'  France,  hut  would  not  stop  I-'rancc  iVom 
attacking'  (Germany  hy  sea.  Iiismarck"s  most  important 
reason  was,  howe\-er.  that  the  Very  principle  of  neutrality 
is  only  ten.il)le  piov  idt d  that  the  popul.ition  is  prep:'.red 
in  .an  em<rL"  ncy  to  defend  it  hy  force  of  arms.  •"  \\\\\  in 
a  country  whose  synipafhies  and  traditions  aie  hound  up 
with  l*"ranc<\  neutrality  would  he  an  illusion.  us(lnl  t<i 
I-'rance,  hut  to  us  (pute  the  reverse. ""  IIo\\e\er  (leeisi\-e 
and  ama/iuLf  the  success  of  Hisniarck's  policy  may  seem 
to  ha\c  heen.  it  has  ne\<rt  heless  in  man\'  casts  In  i  u  hut 
incidental  and  illusory  ;  sundry  coiiseijn'  nces  h;i\c  spiun^ 
j'rom  it  of  Avhicli  he  would  nc\-er  ha\'e  dicaml.  'I'hus.  for 
instance,  he  is  really  the  person  \\ho.  hy  his  uncouth 
treatmint  of  Russia  and  I-'ranee.  nia\  he  said  (o  lia\e 
created  the   l-'r;inco- H  ussiau  Alliance. 

After  Prussia's  \sar  with  Aust  lia  Ilmi^rary  in  isc.r, 
Hisinarek  skil!'ull\-  coritii\((l  to  l)i-ini_f  ahout  an  .•i!lianc<' 
Irf  Willi  tjio.i  countri's  and  (ierman\',  the  mauispriuL'  of 
whieh  was  the  fe.'sr  of  Pan  .Sla\ism  ;is  I'l  |iii  s.  nt  ^  ( I  hy 
Hussia.  Ihsniiiiik  h.ad  In  in  unahje.  except  to  .1  \  (  r\' 
hmited  extint.  to  eurh  thi-  poJic\'  of  that  coiiiiti\,  .and 
IJussia  had  ^oni'tini'  ^  In  1  n  surpri -iicjl)'  sui-ci-lul  in 
tliwarlui^j  fill-  plans  of  Ihi-  "'  Hlood  and  Iron  (  li.inci  IJor." 
Not  eonl(iit  \'.ilh  ha\  uiL,'  def.ated  I''rance  in  I.s7<>  71. 
Hi>m.'irck.  on  w  it  U'ssin;,'  the  re^/i  n(  rat  ion  of  that  rich 
countr\',  wantefl  to  crush  it  entu'el\-  and  hail  the  intention 


Annexation  of  Alsace-Lorraine         IT.) 

in  1875  of  uttiic-kiii^f  it  without  iiny  reason  whatever.  But 
the  Tsar,  Alexander  II,  or  rather  his  Forei;,Mi  Miuistrr, 
Prince  Gortehakoff,  Bismarck's  antagonist,  prevented  on 
that  occasion  tlie  contemplated  assault. 

In  order  to  stren<fthen  Prussia's  position — in  other 
words,  her  supremacy  Bismarck  thcreu{)on  created  the 
''  alliance  of  the  Three  Kmi)erors  "'  of  Germany,  Austria, 
and  Russia,  still  in  piu-suanee  of  the  same  object,  the 
isolation  of  France.  His  tactics  were  to  reiterate  con- 
stajitly  that  the  French,  by  their  thoughts  of  revenge, 
were  a  constant  threat  to  the  i)eace  of  Europe,  and  to 
re{)resent  the  republican  institutions  of  France  as  being 
a  menace  to  all  monarehs  and  an  cncoin-agemcnt  to  Revo- 
lutionaries, Socialists,  and  Nihilists.  Alexander  II  joined 
the  alliance  in  the  hope  that  it  would  procure  him  Prussia's 
supi)ort  for  his  jilans  in  Turkey.  But  when  Russia  had 
defeated  Turkey  in  1878  and  the  Berlin  Congress  was  to 
decide  the  conditions  of  peace,  Bismarck  managed  to 
restrict  the  advantages  at  lh"st  conceded  to  Russia.  '"  I 
have  been  deceived,"  said  Alexander  II  after  reading  the 
Treaty  of  Berlin,  and  from  that  moment  the  "  Three 
Emi)crors'  Alliance  ""  ceased  to  be.  When  Russia  had 
withdrawn  from  it  and  had  gone  so  far  as  secretly  to  jn-epare 
for  war  in  1870,  as  shown  by  documentary  evidence 
published  by  Bismarck,  he  had  to  devise  a  fresh  grouping 
of  ])ower,  and  in  1882  he  created  the  Triple  Alliance,  oi-, 
as  Bismarck's  organ  called  it,  '"  The  League  of  Peace,"' 
between  Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  and  Italy.  Its 
object  was  to  isolate  France  and  to  keep  Russia  in  cheek. 

Russia  had  ever  since  1813  been  allied  to  Germany,  but 
from  her  ])oint  of  view  there  was  one  condition  to  the 
friendship  :  the  limitation  of  Prussia's  military  aseendaney. 
By  that  country's  victories  over  Austria  and  France  this 
condition  was  no  longer  operative,  and  by  the  accomplish- 
ment of  German  unity  Russia's  iniluenee  over  the  small 
German  states,  founded  on  family  alliances,  disappeared. 
Actual  conflict  between  Russia  and  Germany  ^vas,  however. 
jn'cvented   by  the  friendship   Avhieh    imittd  Alexander  II 


120        Blfuke,  During,  and  Aitek  1U14 

with  liis  uiu'k- William  I.  The  coiistiintly  nrrowiii;^  military 
strtu;,'th  of  Russia  and  Kranct-,  which  Bismarck  declared 
to  hi-  directed  Uijaiiist  Prussia,  ^'a\e  rise  to  a  ^'reat 
st  relict  lulling'  (»f  the  Prussian  army,  which  took  place 
in  l.sso.  Shortly  alter  the  assassination  of  AUxander 
(l.SSl)  St  rious  movements  arose  which  deejuiuil  the 
antai,'oiusni  hrtweeii  Russians  and  (iermans.  The  Pan- 
Sla\ists,  who  dreamt  of  the  emancij)ation  of  all  Slav 
natioii>  under  Russia's  protection,  accused  Austria-IIun- 
U'ars  of  oppressiuir  tiie  Slavs  under  iur  rule  and  of  harbour- 
ing' till-  plan  of  hrin^'in;,'  the  entire  Halkan  peninsula 
muhr  her  inlhn  nee,  and  als(»  ^mvc  cxjircssion  to  the 
suspicion  that  (it  rmany  contemplati-d  the  annexation 
of  Russia's  Raltii"  j)ro\inces.  Fretpient  (hiuonstrations 
a^'ainst  the  C.ermans  took  j)lacc.  It  seemed  as  if  the  two 
States  wt  re  |)reparini,'  for  a  coming'  stru^'^de,  ['ov  ^vhi^•h 
it  was  n<-eessar\  to  hoth  j)arties  to  create  a  homou'eiK  (»us 
nation  and  wird  out  foreiifn  elements  from  the  frontier 
(iistriets.  II(  lie  the  Russilicat ion  of  the  Raltic  jtrovinces 
and  the  dii\iiij,'  out  of  the  (Germans,  and  hence  Prussia's 
expulsion  If. Pill  h' r  I-",ast<  rn  pi'o\  inces  «i|'  Russia's  Polish 
s»il»j( ct s  in   1  .s.s."j. 

Tin  If  Is  much  (  vid(  ne<  to  show  that,  although  tlu' 
l-'i'iieh  liiood((l  o\(  I-  the  lo^^  of  ANace  Lorrairu',  the 
thoiiLfiits  of  re\(  iiL''"  soon  ^'a\e  way  to  a  (juieter  spirit, 
not  w  it  lisf  aiiiliiiL,'  that  the  I'lirich  ha\"(  fretjUentU'  been 
].ro\>.k'(i  ami  ;:oadi(i  by  (.<rniany.  Ciirnian\ ,  or.  in 
oth'i"  \S''iiis.  Risinarek.  iiianaL'' d  in  lss7  to  cri  ate  a 
dini."  !■  Mi^  ciisis  by  indueiiiL'  th<  (leinian  Reiejist  a^  to 
a'l-.pt  th<  ■■  S'[it  rruiat  e,'  or  the  se\'(  ii  years'  incr(  asc  ol' 
t!.'  Miht.iiA  |-]>tnnatis  and  1li<  aiiLUnent  at  ion  ol"  tin- 
a!iii\.  lb  \varit<d  til'  rel)y  to  pfrjiare  flic  (•(  rman  people 
1  ■!  a  ht-  alid  di.ith  strULrL.'l''  \Mtll  I-'rane<  li'  that  eountr\- 
<  >uM  b.  indiiei  d  tri  vliow  more  aeti\e  s\nipath\  for  the 
'■lipi'  ^><  <\  Abac  Lonaiin  rs  m  \><  L'i\e  \\a\  to  dcmoiistia 
'  '•!,  .iLMiiit  I  ii  o\  .  M  .!»  i\  '  act  .  (  )nc  ,ii,|i  act  <  >\  tli'- 
•     '.',,!.-int     kind     v'.av    t|,,      a!r>  st     o|     \\,.      I'Vcnch     polie, 


Annexation  of  Alsace-Lokkaim:        121 

commissary  Schnabcle  on  a  false  charge  of  liigh  treus<jn 
by  espionage. 

But  no  casus  belli  arose,  and  France  remained  quiet  and 
self-possessed.  However,  Uismarek's  evil  conscience  and 
constant  anticipation  of  revenge  gave  him  no  j)eaee,  and 
he  must  needs  work  uj)on  tlie  feelings  of  the  people  to 
pave  the  way  for  the  "  Septennate."  Sensational  articles 
and  disquieting  rumours  appeared  daily  in  the  Press,  and 
fresh  acts  of  chicanery  Avere  organized  in  Alsace.  '"  If 
you  do  not  vote  for  candidates  suj)porting  the  '  Septennate  ' 
there  will  be  war!""  ''If  we  do  not  succeed  in  German- 
ising Alsace-Lorraine  there  will  be  war  !  "  This  was  the 
constantly  repeated  cry  of  the  newspapers. 

Field-Marshal  Moltke  said  in  the  Reichstag  on  January 
11,  1887  :  ''  If  the  proposal  of  the  Government  is  rejected, 
I  firmly  believe  that  we  shall  have  war." 

Bismarck  thereupon  declared  :  "  We  shall  endeavour 
to  put  it  out  of  the  ))ower  of  France  to  attack  us  for 
another  thirty  years.  The  War  o/187()  icill  be  child's  play 
by  the  side  of  that  o/1890  or  of  I  knozv  not  zchen  as  regards 
its  effect  on  France."  His  promise  that  the  French 
should  be  "  bled  ivhile  "  was  punctuated  by  the  Reichstag 
with  an  enthusiastic  ''  Bravo  !  " 

Lieut. -Colonel  Kottschau  published  ai)out  this  time 
a  work  entitled  Der  ndchsfe  Krie<i,  which  was  a  brutal 
threat  against  France  and  was  intentkd  to  influence 
the  Reichstag  in  favour  of  the  "  Sej^tennate."" 

In  March  1887  Major  H,  von  Plister  published  a  book 
in  which  he  urged  that  France  should  be  dismembered, 
and  declared  that  "  the  German  people  has  been  chosen 
by  the  Almighty  for  the  inheritance  of  the  Roman  Empire."' 
The  German  ELmpire  was  to  annex  Western  Lorraine  and 
Franchc-Comte,  and  the  Xord  and  Ardennes  Departments 
were  to  be  given  to  Belgium,  which,  together  with  Holland, 
was  to  become  a  vassal  State  of  the  German  Empire. 
Switzerland  and  the  Italian  Tyri^l  were  aKo  to  be  annexed 
by  Germany. 

The  war  agitation  lunin'j  resulted  in  the  aeeei»lauee  of 


122       Before,  During,  and  After  191-1 

the-  '•  Septrimatt.-  '  l)y  the  Reichstag,  its  realization  was  at 
oiici-  j)rt>c(iilrd  to  ;  inovcnu-iits  of  troojis  took  place  in 
all  ;jariis<iu  towns  and  lar<,'e  forces  were  collected  in  Alsace- 
Lorraine  Constant  articles  ni)j)earcd  in  the  Berlin  l*ress 
ahout  rrciK-li  war  j)rej)arations  ( =  mananivres),  al)out 
French  (  ■^|)iona^'e,  about  the  doin<^s  of  the  League  of 
Patriots,  etc.,  tnitil  every  one  began  to  btiit  \-e  in  the 
iruniinenee  of  a  eoiiiliet.  Suddenly,  in  April,  the  sensa- 
tional nt  \vs  was  sj)rea<l  abroad  that  the  universally 
r(s])(ct<(l  jioher  eonunissary  Sehniibelc,  of  the  frontier 
town  of  I'uLruy,  had  been  arrested  in  (iernian  territory  and 
thrown  into  piison  at  Metz.  It  turned  out,  however, 
tliat  he  had  bet  n  recjUested  by  the  ill-famed  (iernian 
pohee  eonmiissaiy  a  leiiegade  of  the  Alsatian  frontier 
I'lwn  of  X"\eant  to  \  isjt  him  on  a  matter  of  businiss, 
but  that  he  had  been  lured  into  an  aiui)Ush.  He  was 
attael<((l,  according  to  tlie  testimony  of  two  witnesses 
(unse(n  I;il)oun  rs  in  a  vineyard),  by  two  tlisguised  police- 
men, but  ran  back  across  the  frontier;  he  was  pursueil, 
knock' d  d'lwu.  iiandcuffed,  and  dragged  across  into 
(i(  rmau  tenit(»i-y.  A  j)rosecution  followed,  and  this 
cdiiM-  <(lthri\  \\hieh  Idled  live  hundred  pages,  was  tried 
by  the  Hiu'li  (oiiit  at  L«  ipzig  ;  at  the  same  time  the 
cas'  \\;is  siibmift((l  to  the  l-wuj)cror  William,  who  fcnind, 
h'-\M  \(r.  that  an  act  of  chicanery  had  l>een  coimuitted, 
and  ordeit  (1  that  Sehnidxie  should  be  at  once  relcascil 
fi'iin  prison  and  allo\v<(l  to  return  home.  That  liismarck 
li.id  a  hand  in  this  eont  erupt  ibie  affair  is  but  too  ob\ious. 
Il>-  li\>d  m  a  ma/.i-  of  |H)|ifieaJ  intiigue  and  trickery. 

I  r.ihe.  ,  li(  r  (iii\  (  iiiiiK  nf  and  Press  mamtained  a  digni- 
li(  d.  ininio\ab|e  ei  .m  jiosuic  t  hroii^'lioiil  this  affair  in 
spite  of  tin  ^r;i\(  I  ill  i\  I  leal  i.  (II,  for  she  wantid  no  br(  aeli 
ol  f  ||.  |.i  ace.  'I'liiis  it  e.inie  abdut  that  (i(  rmanvs  warlike' 
desij^-Ils  w  ere  t  hw  .lit  <  d. 

Hr^m.!!' k  n^w  hit  upon  a  new  scheiiK  for  (•oiii|)roimsi!ig 
I'l.iiii.'.  Ibaiii:'  Hidnc' (I  that  (ouiilry  to  oeeup\-  Tunis. 
v.l)'  le  t!i'    1  V'  neli  had  a  \  ast    .plK  ic  of  mt(  rtsts,  he  stirred 


Franco-Russian  Alliance  123 

up  Italian  feclinfr  apaiust  France  on  the  pretext  that 
Italian  interests  were  being  threatened,  lie  exeited  tlu; 
ire  ofthe  Italian  ehanvinists,  Avho  naively  aimed  at  nothing 
less  than  the  exelusive  right  to  ()eeuj)y  the  whole  of  North 
Afriea  as  being  an  old  Roman  j)rovinee,  and  finally  managed 
to  convinee  Italy  that  the  eountry  had  been  the  victim 
of  a  foreign  State's  j^retensions,  to  which  an  end"  must 
now  be  made. 

The  Italian  Premier  Crisj)i,  who  was  not  distinguished 
by  firnuu'ss  or  integrity  of  character,  allowed  himself 
lo  be  persuaded  by  Bismarck  of  the  necessity  for  renewing 
the  Triple  Alliance  (1887)  and  of  embarking  on  a  ])olicy 
hostile  to  France.  Crispi  clearly  hoj)ed  that  this  alliance, 
th.anics  to  certain  conventions,  would  enable  Italy  to 
take  jiossession  of  a  part  of  the  African  coast-line.  Despite 
Italy's  challenges,  which  for  a  long  time  seemed  likely 
to  make  war  unavoidable,  peace  was  maintained,  thanks 
to  the  calm  demeanour  of  the  French  Government. 

These  renewed  attempts  to  injure  and  irritate  France 
gradually  led  to  a  rapprochement  with  Russia. 

Russia  on  her  ])art  had  begun  to  make  overtures  to 
France  in  the  eiglities.  At  the  coronation  festivities  at 
Moscow  in  1883  the  French  ambassador  was  made  the 
subject  of  demonstrations  of  the  strongest  symjiathy,  and 
from  that  time  the  friendly  relations  between  the  French 
and  the  Russians  became  more  and  more  marked. 

In  their  fear  ol'  the  ascendancy  of  the  German  element 
in  Russia,  the  Russian  Slavophiles  began  to  interest 
themselves  in  Freneli  cultiu'C,  whilst  the  French,  even 
those  holding  the  most  advanced  political  views,  began 
to  conceive  a  liking  for  Russia  and  to  forget  the  old  anti- 
j^athies.  Poland's  fate,  which  had  long  caused  heart- 
burnings in  France,  had  constituted  an  obstacle  to  a 
rapprachoncnt  with  Russia,  but  new  conditions  demanded 
a  sup]-)ression  of  the  old  sympathies.  The  fears  for 
France's  indej;endenee.  if  the  country  were  utterly  isolated, 
became  the  determining  factor  of  French  opinion.     French 


124        Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

hopes  soon  turned  in  the  direetion  of  Russia,  and  presently 
the  "  Boye  tsaria  khrani  *  ("God  save  the  Tsar"),  the 
Uussiiin  National  Anthem,  l)eeaine  a  familiar  and  jtoj)uIar 
nulody  in  Paris. 

Wr  know  that  Gamhttta  had  hojK-s  of  an  allianee  with 
Russia  and  diM-ussrd  the  suhjcet  with  (irnrral  Skobekff 
in  IhSl   in  Paris, 

Whin  Plounns  was  President  of  the  C'ouneil  (ISSO  SS) 
he  tried  to  l>rin^  about  a  eloser  understandiujL,'  httwecn 
Franer  and  Russia.  Jules  (irevy  declared  in  1SS7,  in  an 
iiiti  r\i(\v  with  the  Danish  Lij^'ation  Councillor,  J.  Hansen, 
that  ■■  liussia  and  France  have  a  <,'reat  interest  in  common, 
namely,  to  j)revent  the  further  <,M-()wth  of  German  power  : 
it  threatens  Russia  as  it  does  Frani-c-.  These  two  coun- 
tries nuist,  therefore.  suj)j)(>rt  one  another  in  a  mutual  and 
pacilic  sj)irit." 

Fur  a  lon<,'  time  the  I-'reiieh  Rejuihlic  had  inspired  scant 
s\nipathv  at  the  Wiiitir  Palace,  hut  hy  de;,'ri-es  its  irrowini: 
internal  stability  attraettd  Russia's  attentinn.  and  it  was 
realized  that  to  al)andi)n  France  to  the  teiuhr  mercies 
of  her  em  inies  woulil  mean  that  Russia  would  ha\'e  to 
face  the  Triple  Allianci-  ai'iuc. 

Thus  it  came  about  that  .Mexander  III,  in  IS'.H,  deco- 
rated C'arnot  with  the  iusiunia  of  the  Order  of  St.  Aiuhi  w 
.irid  conveyed  his  cordial  sentiments,  whilst  the  same 
\(ar  saw  the  momentous  \isit  of  the  French  s<piadron  to 
CroMstadt.  .Shortly  afterwards  a  rumour-  soundiiij^  like 
a  fair\  tali-  from  th'-  Anih'uin  Xi'i^hts  was  sj)read  al)road 
that  a  Franco  Hussian  .Mhaiice  \vas  in  coiit  (  inplat  ion  I 
An  alliane<-  b(t\v(cn  Russia  and  l'"rancc.  those  opposih 
])oles  (,r  1)(  >potisin  and  R(  piibhcanisni.  how  preposterous 
it  app<  ared  !  \\  hat  a  daiiLjer  it  s(  <  nied  to  the  unhampert d 
spread  o!  We^tirn  eiijturel  Thi-  (\planation  was  a 
simple  one:  the  alhaiiee  had  its  routs  in  the  eoninion 
r.iltinal  inlittsls  ot  bwlli  alh'it  .Mates  the  n<cissil\-  for 
eh' eLiiiL'  the  ei'owth  ot'diiiiiaii  po\S(r  and  for  crcatin;,'  a 
'    •',)it .  rp' i)s.-   l<.   the   'i'lipli     Alhanee   \\,y   th'-    niaintenane' 

'■t    l>';e'.        it     1^    <!e;tr    that    the    eontiast     in    tlw    s\stellls    of 


Spread  of  Militarism  in  Fatrope        125 

govtriinicnt  and  social  conditions  of  the  two  allied  States 
had  no  bearinjjf  on  tiiis  need.  The  internal  institutions 
and  conditions  of  a  country  are  predetermined  by  its 
historical  development  and  are  national  in  character  ;  its 
alliances,  on  the  other  hand,  are  determined  by  external 
conditions  and  arc  international  in  character.  The  Treaty 
of  Alliance  between  Russia  and  France  was  signed  in 
August  1891. 

This  sequel  to  Germany's  militarism  and  unwise  conduct 
towards  France  in  1870,  when  she  had  s(jught  peace  after 
the  fall  of  Napoleon,  had  not  been  dreamt  of  by  Bismarck. 
His  arrogance  blinded  him  to  realities  and  rendered  him 
inea|)able  of  drawing  (;thcr  political  inferences  than  those 
inspired  by  his  own  illusions  intensiiied  by  success.  It 
is  obvious  that  France,  even  if  nothing  else  was  gained 
by  the  alliance,  was  justilied  in  seeing  therein  an  end  of 
the  hegemony  which  Germany  since  the  Franco-German 
War  had  asserted  in  Europe. 

In  spite  of  Prussia's  victories  in  the  wars  provoked  by 
Bismarck,  he  nevertheless  was  filled  with  anxiety  for  the 
preservation  of  Prussia's  power,  which  he  constantly  saw 
threatened,  and  hence  he  was  always  seeking  to  form 
alliances  and  i)erpetually  increasing  the  military  burden. 
Well  he  might,  to  impress  the  world  with  the  armed  might 
of  Germany,  exclaim  in  one  of  his  "'  grand  speeches  "'  in 
the  Reichstag  (1888)  :  "  We  Germans  fear  God  and  naught 
else  in  the  world  I  "  But  of  this  there  is  no  doubt,  that 
there  was  one  thing  Bismarck  feared  more  than  God,  and 
that  was  —France  and  Russia  !  This  grand  speech  of  his 
presaged  vaster  armaments,  and  to  obtain  them  he  drew, 
with  indifferent  logic,  a  perfectly  harrowing  picture  of 
the  dangers  which  threatened  Germany,  He  unctucnisly 
exclaimed  :  "  God  has  placed  us  in  a  position  in  which 
we  are  prevented  by  our  neighbours  from  ever  sinking 
into  a  state  of  decrepitude  and  sloth.  He  has  })laeed  the 
most  warlike  and  turbulent  nation,  the  French,  by  our 
side,  and  has  permitted  the  growth  of  Russia's  bellicose 


\'2Vt        Wy.yoni.,   Dihim;,   and   Aitf.ii   H»1  t 

propeiiMtifS  to  a  ilo^Tcf  unparalleled  in  l)a^t  ccnturits. 
Thus  we  fttl,  as  it  were,  thf  pressure  of  the  Npur  on  hotii 
sides,  and  nn-  Jorctd  into  exertions  wiiieh  otlu  rwi^e  pt  rhaj  s 
we  shoulil  not  make-.* 

Germany  thereuj)on  inereased  lier  enormous  p(  aee 
strength  hy  more  than  halt'  a  million  soldiirs,  and  she 
could  now  place  over  a  nnllion  men  in  tlie  held  and  \(t 
have  iiall"  a  million  in  reser\'e. 


A  study  of  the  Kuropcan  wars  of  the  sixties  and  seventies 
of  last  century  cannot  l)ut  show  that  liismarck  \\as  their 
nuiin  cause  and  that  it  was  he  who  in  the  lirst  place  rcvi\ed 
Tnilitiirism  in  Kuropc  and  |)rcvented  the  ^M'owth  (»f  a 
friendly  policy  iRtwien  the  States;  it  is,  thanks  to  him, 
that  susj)ici(>n,  dij)lomatic  intrigues,  and  e(pii\<i(  al  alliance  s 
-  socallrd  peace  1«  a;,'ues  armed  to  the  t(<th  ha\i-  hi  en 
the  main  |)reoe-cupatioii  of  I'!uroi)ean  statecral't  in  i(C(  nt 
decades.  NN'hat  a  |>aro(l}'  of  e-i\ilizeel  polities'.  The 
Continuous  armaments,  the  appalliii;,'  nnlitaiy  i)urdi  iis 
reiuh  red  all  demi>nstrations  of  friendship  intwttii  the 
1*(.\\<  r^  ut  t(  rly  illusory.  'J'he  perpetual  iiureasf  in  nulitary 
strtiiL'tli,  thr  principal  conci  rn  <»f  all  Cio\  t  rmue  iit  s  and 
I'arliaiiK  hts  t\rr  since-  l*rii->sia"s  Nictoius,  has  jutehuhd 
all  real  pacilie  inti mational  pro;^r(  ss. 

1^\<  r  since  the  I-"ranco  (i(  rman  \\'ar.  miiitariNin  has 
d'  \.  lop(  (1  throu^diout  J'>uroj)c  at  an  ajipalliii;:  rate  :  (  \  (  ry 
\s  lure  t  here  has  l)e(  n  not  him,'  hut  war  prepaiat  ions,  laiL'(  r 
arniii  s.  addid  armaments,  more  warships  and  foili(SMs, 
I  norinous  :iii(l  wanton  expenditure  :  all  in  order  lo  he  pie 
pan  d  pi'  par<  d  to  uk  et  ail  •  im  ni\  .  No  i(  lianee  eonld  he 
placed  i.n  CI 'ni|  lOsiiiL'  diffi  n  ua  ^  anii(  ;il)I\.  It  IkkI  Ik  i  n  all 
f  o>  p  I  as\  to  ,1  t  ai"ot ,  w  it  hout  an\  ri  a  I  cause.  1  he  war  \".  it  h 
I'ranei    m    l.^TO  as  w.  II  as  the  wars  o|    l.stil   ;ind    l.st.d. 

( iernian\  has  ne\  <  r  c(  a^.  d  to  arm,  and  has  st  leicjt  Ik  ik  d 
h'  r  militar\  s\sfem  in  so  asfoundin;,'  a  lasliiiiH  that  one 
di'iuld  ha\e  thoiiuht  a  new  war  was  (  \  cr  imiiiiiuiit.  \i\ 
P'ac.  I.e.  1).  (  n  pn  ^cr\•t  tl  for  lorty  thitc  y(  ars,  and 
( .'  vnian\   t  ak'  ^  t  he  chief  cr<«lit ,  h -r  (.(  rmaiiw  it  i.  elaim«  il, 


Spread  of  Militarism  in  Europe        127 

lias  only  lived  ior  peace  and  peaeel'ul  inlt  rests,  lor  iier 
internal  culture,  her  material  needs,  the  wcHare  of  her 
{)eople,  etc. 

Why,  then,  has  Germany  never  ceased  to  arm  ?  To 
this  the  answer  is  that  she  has  ever  been  lully  conscious  of 
the  j)erilous  geographical  situation  of  the  country  and  the 
dangers  underlying  the  enmity  and  armaments  of  other 
Powers,  and  that  she  has  found  that  other  nations  begrudge; 
Germany  her  extraordinary  industrial  and  eonmiercial 
development  and  will  not  willingly  permit  her  to  seek  an 
outlet  in  other  continents.  Open  and  secret  hostility  has 
been  the  lot  of  Germany  from  East  and  West  and  from 
across  the  oceans.  Hence,  it  is  argued,  Germany  could 
not  but  hold  herself  prepared  for  war. 

It  seems  to  have  been  forgotten  that  one  of  the  chief  causes 
of  German  anxiety  was  the  war  with  France,  the  annexa- 
tion of  Alsace-Lorraine,  and  Bismarck's  re{)eated  threats 
against  France  in  the  seventies  and  eighties,  all  of  which 
contributed  to  bring  about  France's  alliance  with  Russia. 

Whilst  the  Triple  Alliance,  or  the  so-called  "  League  of 
Peace,"  had  for  its  object  to  isolate  France  and  to  force 
Russia  to  give  up  the  fruits  of  her  victories  on  the  Danube 
and  in  the  Balkan  peninsula,  Germany  has  striven  to 
strengthen  her  hold  on  her  own  conquests  in  the  \Vest 
and  North.  These  conquests  were  the  real  cause  of  the 
"  armed  peace."  Had  that  country's  Government  obeyed 
the  dictates  of  prudence  and  humanity  and  either  returned 
Alsace-Lorraine  to  France  or  made  those  j)rovinees  into 
a  State  enjoying  the  same  neutrality  as  Switzerland,  and 
had  the  Danish-speaking  Schleswig  been  restored  to 
Denmark,  Germany  would  have  been  in  a  far  stronger 
position  and  her  people  would  have  been  relieved  of  at 
least  half  of  their  enormous  burden  of  military  expenditure. 
But  this  was  not  to  be  ;  the  Government  has  always  made 
it  clear  that  the  Alsace-Lorrainers  must  make  up  their 
minds  that  they  are  for  ever  united  to  the  German  EnijMre, 
and  as  regards  the  Schleswig  question,  it  is  looked  upon  as 
dead  and  buried. 


128   Hefore,  l)rRiN(j,  and  After  1014 

'I'lir  ■■  i'racr  L«  a;,'uc."  t lurcfon-.  lias  in  reality  hccn  a 
war  It  a;,nK-.  which  ;,'avt.-  risr  to  the  creation  of  another  war 
leajjiie.  alth<iiij,'h  that,  too,  is  a  '*  |>eaee  league." 

The  whole  systtiu  of  ((iiiilihriuni  whieh  in  the  last  few 
deeadt  N  has  eonstitutid  the  real  pivot  of  Kiirt)j)ean  j)olitics, 
the  Triple  Alliance  and  the  Kraneo-Hussian  Alliance, 
was  a  iisult  (if  the  hnsion  hctxcttn  France  and  (itrinany  dur 
to  the  (inntxiitiiin  of  Alsace- Lorraine  nntier  the  Peace  of 
IVankfort.  Hut  it  is  (piitc  evident  that  this  system  of 
e<piilil)riuin  has  heeii  of  no  hendit  to  the  cause  of  peace  ; 
I'll  the  contrary,  it  has  nii  ant  a  latent  state  of  xvar  or  an 
armed  truce  jKiulin^  a  fresh  war  hetwcen  the  two  enemies 
of  l,s7()   71. 

"  Hy  takiii;^'  ANace-Lorraiiu  ,""  a  Russian  diplomat 
once  r< marked,  "  Hisiiiarek  is  workini;  for  ns,  Strasburfj 
an<l  M(  t/  in  (icriiKiii  hands  means  in  a  comintj  war  Frances 
di\iitic.n  to   Russia." 

N<)\s,  at  last,  the  dreat  War  which  was  eonsidert^l  hy 
many  tn  he  iii<\  itahh-.  has  come  to  pass-.  \N'hcn  Russia  hc- 
came  iii\<'l\<(i  in  Austria's  war  with  .Scrhia.  and  (Germany 
joined  .\ust  I  ia,  I'raiicc.  as  Russjas  ally,  had  t  o  he  drawn  into 
tli>-  war.  \\liicli.  I>\  l'!iiL'l:in(rs  participation  on  account  of 
the  (fi  rmaii  \i->Iatiiin  <»f  Rel;,'ian  ik  utrality  and  the  menace- 
to  I'rance,  Ik  came  a  widld-widc  coiillict.  Rut  this  contlict 
wouM  not  lia\e  come  to  j)ass  hiid  unt  (iiriiiany  annexed 
AImk  I  I.nrnnne.  and  tlierehy  cleat  ed  the  main  incentive  to 
the  l-'raneo  Russian  .Mliance. 


XII 
THE  WORLD  WAR  OF  1914 

PART  I 

A.  Relations  between  Germany  and  England  : 
Germany's  Colonial  Policy  and  Over-Population 
ONE  OF  the  Causes  of  the  War. 

Time  and  again  it  has  been  said  that  the  causes  of  the 
World  W^ar  cannot  be  unravelled  with  the  aid  of  the 
materials  now  at  our  disposal,  that  we  cannot  at  present 
view  in  a  right  perspective  the  forces  and  events  whicli 
led  to  the  kindling  of  the  spark  of  war,  and  that  years  of 
calm  and  unimpassioned  research  are  needed  to  place  this 
epoch  of  history  in  its  right  light.  I  do  not  share  this 
view,  but  find  at  the  time  of  writing — eight  months  after 
the  outbreak  of  war — that  we  possess  in  well-known 
incidents  of  the  last  few  decades,  in  the  official  documents 
of  the  warring  Powers— their  White,  Red,  Yellow,  etc.. 
Books — in  authentic  utterances  and  the  various  parlia- 
mentary records,  etc.,  very  ample  material  for  an  objective 
and  authoritative  exposition  of  all  the  causes  of  the  war, 
and  that  on  the  evidence  thus  obtained  we  can  express 
impartial  opinions  on  the  value  or  otherwise  of  the  publica- 
tions of  the  belligerent  nations  purporting  to  show  who  is 
responsible  for  the  war.  Were  we  to  wait  for  years  in  order 
to  collect  better  materials  on  which  to  base  our  judgment, 
the  only  result  would  probably  be  the  accumulation  of  other 
documents  which  would  merely  repeat  what  is  now  extant 
with  the  same  positive  assertions,  for  the  leading  statesmen 

129  I 


130        Bkfori:,  Dlkinc;,  and  Afti:k  1914 

of  the  variuu>  nations  would  liartlly  he  hkcly  to  cliange 
their  ])oint  of  view  or  rri\e  the  lie  to  their  original  utter- 
ances. 

Cierniany's  colonial  policy  is  of  recent  growth,  hut  has 
achie\'e(l  reniarkahle  results.  It  was  inauguratrd  on 
August  7.  l.s-sl,  when  the  world  was  surj)rised  hy  the 
announeenu  lit  that  (irrniany  had  taken  j)ossessi()n  of 
Angra  Pe<}uena,  in  South-West  Afriia,  hy  an  agreement 
with  a  coiiunerc-ial  house  in  llainhurg,  which  prtviously 
owned  the  region. 

There  had  already  existid.  in  (i(  rnian  towns,  private 
s.)(i(  ties  with  colonial  asj)irations,  the  chiif  of  which  was 
the  Dtutsclur  Kiilntiidirc  rein,  founded  in  IvSSl'.  The 
ohji ct  of  th(se  societies  was  to  iuterist  the  Ciennan  mind 
in  the  stud\'  of  colonial  j)rol)Iems  and  to  give  an  im  pet  vis  to 
tlif  ( /niniiilion  (jiu  .stimi  on  linis  aj  luilidiud  dt :  ( lapnu  tit.  so 
that  emiLMat(d  lit  rmaus  would  remain  (ii  rmans  and  not 
he  altsorhed  in  foreign  nationalities,  thus  counteracting 
till'  thnat'iied  growth  of  other  nations  at  the  expense  of 
(ierman  ea|)ital  and  (ierman  lalxmr. 

Til'-  a<'quisition  of  colonies  soon  followed.  In  Africa 
(irrmaiiN"  has  (i(  rman  .Sout  h-W'est  Africa.  (ienii;tn  I'!ast 
Africa.  Kanierun  and  Togoland  :  in  the  I'a<ilic,  .New 
(iuiiiea.  tin-  Caroline  Islands,  the  Marianne  Islands,  the 
Pi  !'\v  Inlands,  the  Marshall  Islands,  aiul  the  .Sanioan 
Islands.  Til- sc  c(iloni(s  haxr  an  aggregate  j)oj)ulation  of 
1 -."»>''.•. 'i()(i.  aiitl  co\i  r  an  aria  of  'J.«').")S..')  ts  s(]uare  kilo- 
initris.  (.1-  \\\f  times  the  are.a  of  the  derman  Mmpirc  in 
I-<iir"p<'.*  (•(  rmaiiy  occupies  third  plae-r  .after  l-'.iigland 
and   IV.iiK''-      aiii<  )iiL,'  (  oldiual   Powers. 

I-'.ic.'laiid  w.'is  the-  liist  St.ifr  "1'  modern  tunes  to  ae-epiut 
colonies,    ;;ii(l    the    Hiiti^li    h;i\c    pr('\(<l    \  <  ry    ahle    and 

sUce-esslul    eoloni.'.ers.        I'l.-llice    followed    111    Ml  Igla  11(1   s    f.  k  it 

steps  a^  a  coloni/iiiu'  nation  .and  oht.'iined  some  \alualile 
pds.essi. iiis.  {i(  rmany,  like  Italy,  c.imc  a  centur\'  too  late 
f"r  ("jonial   «'\p.'insion   "ii   a    l;ir;.'e   se\il'    .-"(I    hjul    not    the' 


Germany's  Colonial  Policy  181 

same  advantaj^fs  as  Enj^laiid  and  France  NDhody  must 
be^rud<,'o  (Jcrinaiiy  iicr  belated  wish,  nay,  lu-r  necc^ssity, 
for  expansion  in  order  to  find  room  for  lier  overflowin^j 
})oj)ulation  and  a  market  for  lur  ^M-owinjr  industry.  Hut 
Germany,  on  tlie  other  hand,  nnist  not  allow  herself  to 
be  ruined  by  Enj^land's  and  France's  eoh^nial  successes  and 
say  that  these  countries  be^rudj^a'  Germany  a  plac-e  in  the 
sun,  or  colonial  and  conunercial  advanta<,'es  throu^rhout  the 
wide  world. 

The  ^reat  obstacle  to  (Germany's  colonial  policy  is 
that  the  best  places  wer(;  lon<^  since  taken  by  the  earlier 
Colonial  Powers  and  that  the  unapi)ropriated  spaces  were 
comin<T  to  an  end  when  Germany  decided  on  colonial 
expansion. 

Germany  also  j^ossesscd  a  so-called  "  protectorate  "  in 
the  Far  East,  to  wit,  Kiao-Chau,  in  the  Chinese  province  of 
Shantun*;,  occupied  in  November  1897  by  a  squadron  after 
a  eou])le  of  German  missionaries  had  been  murdered  in 
China  (the  full  details  never  really  came  to  li^ht).  By  way 
of  redress  Germany  was  granted  the  "  lease  "  of  Kiao-Chau 
for  ninety-nine  years,  whcreuj^on  the  ])ossession  was 
strengthened  by  powerful  fortifications. 

As  the  Chinese  offered  no  resistance  to  this  act  of 
usurpation,  Russia  followed  suit  by  seizing  Port  Arthur 
(since  taken  by  Jai)an),  England  occupied  Wei-hai-Wei  and 
France  Ilai-Choau. 

The  altered  situation  in  the  Far  East  since  the  beginning 
of  the  World-War — Jajian  liaving  taken  Kiao-Chau  and 
now  seeking  to  make  China  a  protectorate  in  order,  for  self- 
])rescrvation,  to  ])revent  the  further  penetration  and 
influence  of  the  white  race — seems  to  mark  the  end  for  all 
time  of  Germany's  colonial  ambitions  in  China. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  Bismarck  never  gave  a 
thought  to  a  German  colonial  emi:)ire,  Germany  being  in 
his  opinion  "satiated,"  and  that  in  188-1-  he  tncournged 
France  to  pursue  colonial  conquests  in  ordc  r  thus  to  divert 
her  attention  from  Al^nce-Lorrainc.     As  ah'cady  ]-^oint',d 


132        Before,  During,  and  Ajter  1914 

out    he   also    liopcd    \)\    this    mcan>    to   set    Italy    against 
France  (p.  I'J.'J). 

Xc\v  factors  hcMran  to  make  their  appearance  about  this 
time,  which  j;ave  hirth  to  the  expansionist  movement, 
(iermany  had,  in  the  great  Westplialian  coalfields  and  the 
industrial  region  (Jii  the  banks  ot'  the  Ruhr,  rendered  so 
famous  by  Krupp's  ironworks,  created  a  world  wide 
industry  whiih  ri\alli'd  that  of  England  and  America,  and 
she  had  also  in  other  directions  in  Silesia,  IJirlin,  etc. 
attained  an  enormous  industrial  development  which 
ru  (({((l  an  outlet  in  foreign  countries.  Tt)  this  end  a 
(ierman  mercantile  marine  was  necessary,  and  soon  there 
.irosc  in  Hamburg  and  Bremen  mighty  shij)ping  concerns 
with  \"ast  Meets  of  ships  for  transoceanic  tradi'.* 

'i'lu-  great  mamifacturers  aiul  shipowners  now  pointed  <»ut 
tjie  iKcessity  of  a  navy  to  defend,  if  necessary,  the  mercan- 
tile marine  and  the  eonimereial  interests  in  foreign  coun- 
tries, and  to  f>r<it(ct  the  (ierman  c<)l(»nies.  The  Kmjxror 
William  reali/.ed  this  iie( d  and  furtheitd  the  plan  with  his 
aeeustMined  eiier^'X'.  and  his  words,  '"  (iermanv's  futuri-  li<-s 
upon  t  he  \s  ater,"  sdoii  Ixcame  a  ei>rn(  r  stone  in  (iermaiiys 
new  polies'. 

The  buildniL:  "1  a  large  na\\'  now  beeanie  the  main  pi"e- 
'-eeupation  of  the  (io\(rmn<-nt.  and  in  I'.mio  the  Reichstag 
pass<(l  the  desired  \(.te  in  the  face  of  strenuous  oppo- 
sition tiuiii  the  Liberals  and  Social  Democrats,  to  whom 
a  biu'  na\  y  meant  warlike  i-omplieat  ions,  and  who  pointed 
"ut  that  t  h'  best  ai'eas  o\itside  I-'nrope  had  alrcadv  been 
"ceiiphd  and  that  thi-  political  situation  in  I'iurope.  being 
tiill  ot'  danL'ers,  did   not   jiistifv  spJittiuL:  "p  t  In-  count  r\'s 

le  ^1  .lirce^.    (  t  c. 

•  AiriMiiy  the  in.iiiy  WTks  (|i;iliii;:  wifli  tliis  sul)jiit  I  lii.i\-  nu  li- 
li'in  :  (,.  S.  Imioll.  r.  M.  S' rm:.'.  A.  Warmer,  Haml.ls  u  Mn'  lilpoUiik 
nU<M»i:  I).  s,|,:,f,r.  />//•  ll,,lr,itin,'j  ihr  Srrriuuhl  (HMKM:  (..  A. 
I.r.iiri.iriii.  \iiti  (thrr  uttt.r  (!'.«►(»)  ;  Dr.  A.  NH-si;.'.  Dtr  d,  utsrlifnnt- 
:'/,i.s.7,/-  Anrvttii  niuil  (l'.MM»):  I'.  MMnlKirdf,  Kauii  1 ),  ulioliltmd 
\\  rtli.nlilil.  tifil,.,,  '  (l!t(i:!)  :  Dr.  \m -h-  t-/  |{.  I-..  ,\\  .  /;,  r  (.ru)nl<;i({<itihr 
Ut  'If  fits,  I, f  ,1  Knlnninliinlilik  (  \UO:i)  :    M.ir<.ii  \'.n  I'.ilk.  lu  ;'l'.  Wdsuinl 


Germany's  Colonial  Polk  y  133 

It  was  openly  ur^td  Ihul,  to  be  u  Grtut  I'owt  r,  Cicrniany 
must  show  herscirto  be  an  industrial  Power  of  the  lirst  rank, 
for  the  yearly  addition  of  8()(),0()()  souls  made  it  neeessary  to 
divert  them  to  the  laetories,  seeing  that  there  was  no 
room  for  them  in  agriculture.  Now,  as  these  produets  of 
industry  coidd  not  all  iind  a  market  in  Germany,  they 
had  to  be  exported,  and  this  meant  the  need  of  colonies  and 
conmiercial  houses,  etc.,  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  wiiicli 
in  turn  required  for  their  protection  a  powerful  navy. 

By  degrees  it  became  clear  to  all  that  a  large  navy  for  the 
protection  of  trade  and  colonies  was  a  matter  of  life  and 
death.  The  workmen  realized  that  Germany's  colossal 
industry  demanded  an  export  trade,  and  that  this  exj)ort 
trade  must  be  ])rotectcd  overseas  by  warships.  If  exports 
were  stopped  the  factories  would  have  to  shut  down,  and 
this  would  mean  loss  of  wages  to  millions  of  workers, 
who  would  then  be  given  over  to  the  stress  of  starvaticju. 

Apart  from  American  trade  rivalry,  against  which  all 
European  countries  have  to  contend,  it  is  chielly  England's 
trade  that  Germany  fears,  although  she  has  successfully 
stood  the  test  of  competition.  The  Germans  have  gone 
so  far  as  to  call  England  the  ''  hereditary  enemy,"  and 
England,  on  the  other  hand,  has  become  concerned  over 
the  German  competition. 

The  Saturday  Rcvieiv,  in  1897,  tried  to  set  the  British 
against  the  Germans,  and  published  an  article  declaring 
Gcrmaniam  esse  dclcndam  (Germany  must  be  destroyed). 

In  his  pamphlet,  The  Meaning  of  Sea-poicer  to  Germany 
(1900),  Professor  D.  Schiiffer  described  '"the  energy  and 
ruthlessness  wliich  the  British  have  shown  in  their  craving 
for  colonies  and  their  quest  of  oversea  trade,""  and  proceeded 
to  show  how,  since  the  inception  of  the  German  colonial 
policy,  "  England  has  with  feverish  haste  laid  hands  on  all 
that  could  be  taken,  mostly  for  no  other  reason  than  to 
prevent  others  from  settling  there.""  He  wanted  the  threat 
in  the  Saturday  Revie'c  to  be  taken  to  heart,  and  it  was 
long  repeated  everywhere.  It  was,  of  eoiu>e.  only  in 
certain  circles  in  Ensland  that  this  view  was  held,  and  the 


131        Bkioki:,  DiKiNc;,  and  After  1911 

tlutut  inuvt   not,  tlurtlore,  he  taken  as  an  expression  ot" 
I)ublii'  oj)inii>n. 

\\>r  niany  yrars  numerous  German  national  eeonomists, 
sueli  as  llassr,  nu  njixr  ol  tlu-  Kciehstaj;,  I'rotVssor  Stengel, 
antl  Dr.  (.'•.  A.  I'lrdmaim,  have  tleelared  that  the  (•norm«)US 
[,'ro\vtli  ol   (iermanys  popuhition     o\ir  SOO.OOl)  amuially 

l"urni--h«^  tlic  niam^prin^'  ol'  the  colonial  jxdiey.  In 
a  short  tim<-  a  ^'rcat  j)art  ol  (it-rman  industry  mi^'iit  be 
threatened  with  ruin  \vt  re  it  not  for  this  jxiliey,  and  the 
\\iiole  (icrnian  l!uij)irc  mi^dit  become  the  scene  of  a  social 
i<  \olution  this  is  a  j)ers|H-ctive  with  which  the  (iermans 
arc  lannhar. 

Hitlu  rto.  in  (ji  rman  ollicial  circK  s,  it  lias  been  rcf^'ardcd 
a^  an  axiom  that  the  j)o\V(  r  of  a  State  depinds  on  the 
iiuvilnr  ol  iN  inhabitants  and  that  (Germany  can  maintain 
her  jMisition  anions  the  Cirt  at  l'o\vers  only  by  the  constant 
ai»d  unt  ramuM  lit  (1  j^'rowth  of  her  j)o|»uhit  ion.  Hut  Tor 
maii\'  y(  ars  notes  ol  warmiiu'  Iroin  ]m  r-oiis  of  weiLiht  ha\'e 
1)1  <  n  siiimd'd  a;,'ainst  this  \i(  \v  in  (iermany.  'I'hus  (i. 
Sehmolh  r  wiote  m  1  .SN'J  in  L(n>(l:cirty<li(ijll.  J  ultrUucJu  r  : 

■■  As  ri  ijards  the  number  of  children.  I  do  not  wish  to 
eomiiieiid  fhf  l-relieh  '  two  children  sysli  m  "  ;  but  neither 
do  I  think  it  \\isc  on  our  part  to  adhere  blindly  to  tin  old 
doL'ina  ol  tlu-  blessings  of  unlimited  lannlies  a  d"L'nia 
\\liieli  riL,'htl\'  beloii-js  to  an  <[)o<'li  of  semici\  ili/.at  ion.  If 
w '  cMuld  onl\  el<  ai'  tlie  (.<  rinaii  nation  of  the  sti^nia  of 
till-  ;^'liati--t  elilld  ni<irtaht\  in  the  woild.  which  is  but  a 
C'lll--'  ipl"  nee  (it  iMir  e\ecssi\c  birth  late.  inUell  Would  be 
l/aUi'  d. 

Ifi  1:1  >  /'.  /,'//,  Ti.  il  ^cjikc  d.clar.  d  in  1. s '.•.":■■  In  th.  di\  i 
si"n  'A  tin  c\tr.i  I-.!i  1  i  >j  i<  ;in  w^'iM  .'.mon-  tin  Mui  ■  ij  k  an 
iiat  loiiN  ( ,1  rni:ui\  ha-  a!\\  a\  s  |(  ci  i\  ,  d  1  ||,-  sn,;il|i  st  shai-c." 
Tlii^  v'liMids  like  an  aecii  atioii  a'j.iUi-^l  hIIhi-  PnWiis. 
liiit  'I"ri  it  ^ehl.c  must  lia\  e  knM\\  n  t  li.it  1h  |,  ir(  1  s.s  t  (,.  i mauN- 
ii'  \ '  i-  s,  ,i!(^rl,t  I , .  s(  (  111  r  any  (  -  .N  .im  -.  1  li  c, ,(  s  on  :  ■"  And 
\  <  t  our  \  '  I  \-  cM-t  cnee  as  a  ( •  I  <  at  I'.  .\\  i  f  dt  |  (  nds  on  win  t  her 
\'. '    enn  b'  ei  .nic  an  o\  (  i^cas  l'(  .\\  <  i  .      ( )l  Ik  i  \\  i>c  w  c  shall  be 


(iERMANy'is  Colonial  Policy  IU-'j 

reduced  to  seeing  England  nnd  Russia  dividing  up  tlu- 
world  between  tlR-ni.' 

Speaking  of  tlie  start  which  certain  Powers  have  had  in 
the  division  of  the  earth,  G.  A.  Krthnann  wrote  in  his 
pamphlet  Nini  abcr  xccilcr  (11)00),  in  supjiort  of  Treitsehke's 
theory  of  might  :  "'  In  moulding  the  fate  of  nations  tiiioltl 
and  right  are  synonymous.  He  who  has  tiic  greatest 
might  nuist  also  have  the  greatest  right  that  is  to  say, 
must  seize  the  best  and  largest  inlieritance.  U'his  is  a 
political  moral  })rincii)le  (!)  Avith  which  the  German  nation 
nuist  make  itself  familiar,  for  fear  that  its  philosojjhic 
morality  may  bring  about  its  bankruptcy."  And  to  {)rove 
that  Gernumy  needs  7iczv  territory  Krdmann  wrcjte  : 
''  Germany  is  faced  with  an  all-conipcUing  "  must  '  ;  any 
shirking  of  this  duty  of  world-})olicy  will  enormously 
weaken  her  position,  or  probably  destroy  it  for  ever. 
Those  who  speak  of  the  '  colonial  adventures  '  of  our 
Government  merely  show  their  narrowness  of  vision,  for 
the  time  might  come  when  Germany  would  have  to  pour 
out  rivers  of  blood  for  the  possession  of  a  strip  of  land 
claimed  by  another  State.  The  establishment  of  close 
economic  bonds  with  the  aid  o{  eolonies  of  her  on'u  would  be 
to  Germany  merely  a  safeguard  against  such  cupidity  on 
the  part  of  other  States." 

CJ.  Schmollcr  wrote  in  Ilandels-  u.  Miwlilpoliiilc  (1000)  : 
"  Our  existence  will  be  threatened  if  we  have  no  sca-i)ower 
and  do  not  permanently  kcej^  open  the  maritime  routes  on 
wliieh  the  grain-cxix)rting  States  may  in  certain  circum- 
stances bring  their  ft)rces  to  bear."  This  work,  in  which 
several  }:)olitical  economists  collaborated,  was  intended  as 
a  note  of  alarm  over  the  desperate  position  in  which  Germany 
would  be  placed  without  a  strong  navy  to  support  the 
country's  colonial  policy. 

During  my  several  visits  to  Germany  in  the  years  180'.)- 
1903,  when  the  debates  on  colonial  policy  and  the  increase 
of  the  navy  were  going  on,  I  became  convinced  of  Germany's 
need  of  important  colonies  for  her  home  and  export  trade 


186       Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

-  then  representing  a  sum  of  10,000  million  marks  —and  of 
the  urgent  necessity  under  which  slie  laboured  to  provide 
a  livelihood  for  many  million  workers.  A.  Lalance,  the 
cmiiunt  Reichstag  nuinher  from  Alsace,  had  suggested  in 
18h8  that  (iennany  should  endeavt)ur,  by  amicable  negotia- 
tions with  France,  to  acquire  a  favourably  situated  French 
colony.  Aftir  I  had  studied  the  conditions  in  Alsace- 
Lorraine  I  felt  I  wa^  able  to  suggest  a  transaction  which 
Would  make  an  i  nd  of  the  (jld  animosity  between  French- 
men and  (iermans  which  had  prevailed  since  the  annexation 
of  the  pro\  iiices.  and  at  the  same  time  would  promote 
Ciermany"s  colonial  policy  ;  this  suggestion  consisted  in 
taking  >ij)  Lalunce's  idea  as  to  the  restoration  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine  t(»  France  against  a  suitable  colony.  In  addition 
to  this,  (i<rmany  should  enter  into  a  Tariff  I'nion  with 
France,  which  might  be  exjxetcd  soon  to  develoj)  into  a 
dth'isiir  (illiancf.  'I'hus  the  jicacc  of  Fiiropc-  \voiil(l  be 
assured  and  the  colossal  sums  exjx  luhd  by  (Germany  and 
France,  and,  in  fact,  by  all  other  I'!urop(an  count  rics,  on 
war  j)r(i»arations,  might  be  re(lue( d  to  an  insignilicant 
ligurc. 

I  prrscntcd  and  (  laboratcd  tiiis  suggtNtioii  in  a  \sork 
entitled  Alsiict-  Ldrrniui*  to  \\liieh  the  l-'reiieh  (ieput\-  .V. 
.Miilerand.  now  French  War  .Miiuster.  \vrote  an  introduc- 
tion. .Aly  siijjgest i(»n,  ho\\<\ir,  met  with  no  success  in 
(iermany.  bein^,'  rej(cted  with  the  greatest  ein]>liasis 
both  in  the  l'r»  ss  and  in  j)ri\ate  ufterancis  in  h  tl(  rs  and 
eoii\  t  rsat  ions.  'Y\\c  r»t  rocession  of  Ajsace  Lorraine  could 
nevr  b(    tli'ni'Jti  (if. 

'ril.'lt     b(  UlL'    '^".     I    ('"nless    I     \ir\\((l    the    futur'-    With    CoU- 

sider.able  pessinn^iii.  for.  althoUL'h  1  had  i\<i\'  r<  a^ou  to 
think  that  I  r.inee  would  ne\  <  r  niaki  war  on  (ir  rmaiix  for 
till-  sake  of  .\Isaee  Lorr.iiiii  ,  I  b<  c.iine  more  and  more  con- 
\  ine.  d  fh.it  (.iinw.iiw's  I,: ,  I  ji',j)iil(itl(,n  and  Ik  r  eoiisc(jui  nt 
I'Atnniil  jHiliiii  wiiiiM  become  a  nnisr  /■(  ar/r  a ///<  I'.iinLnui, 
an    opinion    which    I    also   expressed    in    the    abo\c  named 

•  \  \\-ti'Tii.  I.'  Ah'Kil.i.rnnui  .  I':»ri^,  Hmi.'I  ;  Usass- L<ill,niiili  i\ 
uud  iln    M  flu  1,1.,  il  ,  n,,  r  tl<  ut^i  h  fnni-'  ws<  hi  u  AIIkhiz.  M<  rliii.   U»<i  J. 


Germany's  Colonial  Policy  137 

work.     The  War  of  1911  is,  in  fact,  essentiully  attributable 
to  these  factors  in  the  economic  hfe  of  Germany. 

That  England,  in  view  of  her  insular  position  and  her 
colonies,  must  have  a  large  navy  is  obvious  ;  without  it 
the  country  could  be  starved  in  a  very  short  time  in  case  of 
war,  and  her  trade  would  be  entirely  at  the  mercy  of  an 
enemy  Power.  Thus  when  Germany  suddenly  appears 
with  a  powerful  navy,  it  is  plain  that  England  nmst  increase 
hers,  especially  as  Genuan  trade  has  become  a  dangerous 
competitor  to  England's.  In  these  circumstances  the 
British  Government  and  Press  have  repeatedly  attempted 
to  persuade  Germany  not  to  accelerate  her  naval  pro- 
gramme, making  it  clear  that  England  would  also  moderate 
hers  if  the  suggestion  were  accepted.  But  Germany  would 
not  fall  in  with  this  proposal,  and  continued  year  after  year 
to  build  more  and  more  warships,  until  at  last  an  absolute 
panic  arose  in  England. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  enormous  growth  of 
the  German  navy  was  a  deciding  factor  in  England's 
rapprochement  with  France,  which  came  to  pass  after 
Edward  VII's  visit  to  President  Loubet  in  1903,  and  by 
which  a  safeguard  against  the  German  danger  was  con- 
templated. 

The  necessity  for  England  to  increase  her  Navy,  since 
the  German  navy  was  continuously  being  added  to,  was 
emphasized  by  the  Prime  Minister,  Mr.  Asquith.  in  a  sj)eech 
in  Parliament  in  1909. 

The  tension  between  Germany  and  England  turned 
chiefly  upon  their  African  interests,  England's  plan  to 
link  up  Ca{X'  Colony  with  Egypt  clashing  with  Germany's 
plan  of  connecting  Kamerun  and  the  East  African  colony. 
There  has  also  been  antagonism  between  the  two  countries 
in  Asia,  where  the  German  Bagdad  railway  was  an  obstacle 
to  England's  plan  of  establishing  railway  connexion 
between  Egypt  and  India. 

But  there  was  no  reason  why  these  plans  should  lead  to 
war,  and  before  the  conflict  of  1914  there  was  every  ground 


138        Before,  Dihinc;,  and  Aiteh  1911 

I'or  hoj)ing  that  the  two  count rits  would  he  able  to  settle 
their  tlifferences  amicably. 

At  the  bi-^'inninj^  of  the  war  Dr.  A.  Ziiiuiuriuann, 
Iinptrial  Le^'ation  Couiieillur,  in  an  article  ini  "  Why 
Kn<,'land  Makes  War"  (in  Dif  IVnchr,  \w^us[  li'J,  r.tu"), 
wrote  as  follows  :  "  The  more  our  indi^'nation  and  sur- 
prise at  the  vile  attack  <>}  the  Triplt  /'.'///e/j/e  <,M\i  s  way 
to  calm  nlleclion,  the  more  ob\  ions  it  becomes  that  the 
xciir  fiii\id  upon  Gt'nimnij  was  unfortunatily  ine\  ital)le.*' 
It  \\as  I'laiiees  schemes  of  ri\ent,'e,  Russia's  rapacity,  and, 
first  and  last,  Kn^dands  treacherous  conmurcial  j)oiicy 
that  br<>u;,dit  about  the  AVorld  \N'ar: 

"  In  (iermanv  we  sh<»uld  ne\<  r  have  decided  for  war 
had  not  our  most  saerid  possessions  lilxity  and  ht>nour, 
hearth  and  home  b^rii  at  stake.  In  iMiuland  war  has 
alua\s  b(  rn  a  business  like  anv  other.  ()th<r  nations 
h;i\c  r<  ;jardetl  war,  e\(  n  if  sue<'(  ssful.  as  a  judiinitnl  aj 
(i(i(l,  a  terrible  visitation,  whiKt  to  the  British  it  has  always 
meant  a  ^'ood  opportunity  of  cnrichinu'  thems(l\(s  by 
piriirti  (ind  the  liLr.  Tiny  have  more  than  once  in  tlii' 
courst  of  history  indii.'nant  ly  rejected  any  pac-ilic  (  ffoit. 
More  than  one  IJritisJi  (io\(  rnnu  nt  has  bet  n  o\<rthro\vn 
by  til'-  aiiLj*  r  of  the  Hiitish  eoniniereial  inti  risfs  at  the 
prospect  of  brin^  d<  pri\(  d  of  t  heir  o  p  port  unit  irs  for  t  ra<k- 
robb'  r\  |)\-  a  jM(niatuie  p<  ace.  ...  It  is  si|j;ui;eant  that 
tli<-  LiIm  rals  jia\f  lak(n  o\er  from  tli<'  'I'oii's  the  chief 
repr.  .  rit  at  i\(  s  ot'  tlie  ant  i  (i(.rnian  polie).  .Sir  l"',d\\ard 
(.!"'  y  ;iiid  C'liureliill." 

It  there  Is  aiatliiMLT  as  e(rtaiii  .is  that  Sir  Mduaid 
(iii\  s  (ffi.ifs  to  pn\.iif  the  war  must  lie  r(  L'.ndi  d  .is 
.ab  ohit(  ly  sinei  le.  it  Is  t  hat  <  arher  Ibit  i^h  st  at  i  sm,  ii  lia\  ■■ 
eii' r;.'»  t  ically  sou;;Iif  f..  pi.  s.  r\e  peaet  .  II.  Hieli.ird  m 
is?.*!  broiij'ht    f.irw.iitl  a   Ibll  |oi-  tjie  or;jaiii/at  !■  >ii  of  pr  aee, 

will)  h    \sas    p.assr  (1    h\     the    IloUse    of   ('ollilliolis.        (iladsj.ine 
id-  I:t  111-  .!   hlMl    <  If  W  it  h   f  he   ]'.  ace  (',  .li^Tess  ;it    Na  pie  s  i  n    1  SSO 

arid  1 1  i<  d  f .  I  |-roiiiote  t  he  itl'  .i  of  tiisarmaiiient .      Hi  chard. 
Hiii'hf,   ami   other   h  ad<  rs  of  th<     .Maiich'sttr  .School   pub 


Germany's  Colonial  Policy  189 

lished  writings  on  the  same  subject.  Courtney  in  1H8I 
made  a  proposal  for  simultaneous  general  disarmament 
which  was  approved  by  the  House  of  Commons. 

About  the  same  time  Moltke  was  declaring  in  the  German 
Reichstag  that  Germany  must  stand  armed  for  another 
fifty  years  and  saw  to  it  that  the  armaments  were  pushed  on 
with  the  utmost  activity. 

The  British  have  long  looked  with  disfavour  (ju  the 
Germans  on  account  of  the  comj)etition  occasioned  by 
the  flourishing  growth  of  German  connnerce  and  industry, 
and  this  broadened  into  alarm  on  witnessing  German\'"s 
preparations  on  land  and  sea. 

But  then  there  appeared  on  the  scene  j)aei lists  of 
varying  shades  who  sought  to  prove  that  it  was  absurd  to 
worry  on  account  of  Germany,  who  could  not  possibly 
have  any  intention  of  injuring  England.  Persons  in  high 
places,  representative  corporations  merchants,  ollicials, 
journalists,  etc. — paid  and  returned  visits  to  Berlin  and 
London  in  order  to  establish  and  assure  friendly  relations 
between  Germans  and  Englishmen.  Tims,  in  recent 
years,  an  improvement  had  taken  place  in  Anglo-German 
relations,  and  it  was  found  that  in  many  spheres  the 
two  countries  could  work  side  by  side  and  that  in  many 
respects  their  interests  were  not  antagonistic.  Germany 
has  been  England's  largest  customer,  and  in  many  respects 
England  has  been  dependent  on  German  industry. 

But  once  more  a  nervous  feelinfj  arose  in  En<rland  on 
account  of  the  colossal  armaments,  the  huge  sea-ports, 
and  the  great  fleet  which  Germany  was  building,  for  it 
was  evident  that  she  contemplated  an  extension  of  her 
power  and  armed  compel  it  ion  in  the  world's  markets. 

A  sensational  Army  Bill  was  presented  in  Germany  in 
1912,  and  in  the  same  year  the  Government  asked  for  an 
enormous  vote  for  the  navy. 

That  there  has  been  a  fear  in  many  quarters  in  England 
of  Germany's  competition  in  trade  is  not  to  be  denied. 
But  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  England,  or  rather 
her   Government,  contemplated   seizing  some    favoin-able 


\U)        Heiokk,  During,  and  After  1014 

upptirtiinity  to  strike  at  Cicnnan  competition  in  the  world's 
nuirkits  hy  si<  kinj,'  an  excuse  to  destroy  the  German  navy. 
This  heht  f  has  heen  universally  cultivated  in  Germany, 
when-  it  has  heen  laid  down  that  Kn<il<nHl  is  the  arch- 
eruniy. 

Yit  we  have  heen  assured  that  the  Imperial  Chancellor 
Hrthrnaim-IIoilwej,'  ea;,Hrly  strove  to  ini})r<at'  German 
relations  :cith  England  and  to  bring  about  afrifnilly  ffcliii^fi 
-.iith  Fnnict'.  No  doubt  it  has  always  been  the  aim  of  all 
(ioNiTiuntnts  to  maintain  friendly  relations  with  other 
l*o\\(Ts.  Hut  why  was  not  this  effort  persevered  in  ? 
Otiur  points  ol'  \i(w  arose  and  all  the  good  intentions 
sutldenly  collapsed. 

It  may  be  true  eiiotigh  as  tlie  authorities  say,  to  hyjmo- 
tize  the  (ierman  ptople  that  the  (i(  rmans  are  waging  war 
''  as  a  iiiatt(  r  of  life  and  diatli,  for  their  \ery  existi'nce," 
for  they  must  expand  and  ac(piire  colonies  in  order  to 
li\i-;  but  lliey  ha\-e  by  no  nuans  b< en  attaditd  by  other 
eouiitiK  >  and  their  existence  has  not  been  threatt  lu d. 

In  (•'  iiiiany  if  has  bt  i n  the  lashion  to  cast  the  blame  for 
till  WAV  on  l-jit-'land,  on  the  plea,  amongst  others,  that 
Kin;^'  I'idwaid  \'II  uit  roduc  d,  and  King  (itorge  \'  and 
Sn-  l-',<i\sai(l  drey  eontinu((l,  the  encircling  policy  which 
thri>UL.'li  th<'  l",iitriitr  with  I'lanee  aiul  Russia  is  intended 
t"  |pr<\iiit  G(  riiiaii  (Xpansidii.  There  is,  of  course,  a 
(•<  rtaiM  amount  of  truth  in  this,  but  it  does  not  follow  that 
l'.ri:.'l.iiMl  Is  f(i  blam<-  f^r  tlir  war.  because  the  reasons 
l''r  til'  "  I  IK  iicIuil:  po|ie\  "  are  just  as  much  to  be  sought 
Hi  till-  (■■induct  di  (.(  rniaiiy  li<  is(  If.  It'  tlic  Germans  lind 
it  n- I  .  Nsar\  t>>r  thiu"  <xist<iicc  [<>  juocurc  new  tcrritor\' 
\''<r  t  ti.  M-  c"Muu<  rc'  and  surplus  population,  other  nations 
Ind  it  i(juall\  n<  <•<  -sar\-  to  saf<  L'uard  t  liriiisi  hcs  against 
'  ii<T'  '.kIuii'  nt  -. 

){'  I  iihaiili  d'ejaies  Ml  (iiniiiiini  ami  tlir  \iif  Uar  that 
'■  N'.ai  I  tirt  and  |Mr<  in'ist  a  I'inln'jJKil  nt  ci  .ssitt/,  a  regulator 
111  tl;<  111.  i<\  mankind  which  cannot  be  dis|i(nsc(i  with." 
II'     luitli'i'     a\  s   that    ■■  m   nature  t  lie  ^hiini^h    jar  tiishrirr 


Germany's  Over-population  141 

is  also  at  the  r<X)t  of  all  sound  developnuut  that  cvfry- 
whcre  we  find  that  the  ri^iht  of  the  slrotv^er  prevails,  that  the 
weaker  goes  to  the  wall.  This  strugij[le  is  rctrulatcd  and 
controlled  by  hiolorjical  laws  and  by  the  interplay  ol 
opposing  forces.  In  the  vegetable  and  animal  world  tiiis 
process  is  worked  out  in  unconseious  tragedy." 

That  is  so,  no  doubt,  if  we  })laee  ourselves  on  a  level 
with  animals  and  savages  and  l)arbarians.  This  reflection 
carries  the  mind  back  to  the  early  migration  of  the  (iermans 
forced  upon  them  by  famine  and  the  necessity  of  finding 
food  and  pastures,  and  it  reminds  us  also  of  the  migration 
of  certain  animals  for  a  like  purpose -all  biological 
necessities. 

Bernhardi  recognizes  that  Germany's  grcnvth  of  pojiula- 
tion  calls  for  colonics,  and  he  considers  it  quite  in  order 
that  these  colonies  should  be  iakcn  by  force  of  arnis.  He 
remarks  in  the  same  book  :  "  Strong,  healthy,  and 
flourishing  nations  show  increasing  figures  (jf  ])0))ulati()n  ;  * 
they  need  from  a  certain  moment  onward  a  constant 
expansion  of  their  boundaries  ;  they  must  have  )ic:i' 
territory  in  order  to  rnakc  room  for  their  surplus  popuhitioyi. 
But  as  nearly  every  part  of  the  globe  is  inhabited,  lu  w 
territory  can,  as  a  rule,  only  be  obtained  at  the  expense  of 
the  occupants— that  is  to  say,  by  conquest,  which  thus 
becomes  a  law  of  necessity.  The  right  of  conquest  is 
universally  acknowledged." 

This  utterance  by  a  leader  of  the  German  war-policy 
shows  that  Germany  was  preparing  to  act  as  aggressor 
whenever  she  found  it  necessary  or  desirable  for  the 
acquisition  of  fresh  territory. 

Far  from  constituting  Germany's  strength,  her  enormous 
increase  of  population  has  been  harmful  to  the  nation. 
The  birth  to  the  country  of  many  million  potential  soldiers 
is  only  a  temporary  source  of  strength,  enabling  Germany 

*  I  may  add  :  So  do  weak  nations  ;  and  1  may  point  out  fliat  a 
small  increase  of  population  is  primarily  attributable  to  other 
causes  than  ttie  quality  of  the  race  or  intentional  limitation  of 
births.     This  is  known  to  all  students  of  the  subject. 


Ill'        Heforp:,  DiRiNc;,  and  A  iter  191  !■ 

by  havini;  prepared  for  the  great  war  in  every  detail,  to 
kr<-p  the  enemy  at  ami's  k^n^jth.  But  what  colossal  sums 
it  has  cost  I  What  suffering,  what  a  loss  of  human  life  it 
has  hrouijht  about  I  For  it  is  j)lain  that  this  (,'reat  j^rowth 
of  population  has  been  one  of  Ihc  principul  cdiisfs  oj  the 
war  o/  r.»l  1. 

IJ.  Tin:  SiTiATioN  in  kkgard  to  tiik  British  and 
FHr.Ncn  I'ossr.ssioNs  in  Xohtm  AriiicA.  TiiF, 
Morocco  Dispitf.  with  (ir.RMANY. 

In  K^'vpt.  owinij  to  financial  conditions,  France  and 
KuL'land  have  in  recent  times  had  le<,ntimate  interests  to 
safcL'uard,  mainly  in  connexion  with  the  buildin*?  of  the 
Su(  /.  C  anal.  The  Khedive,  Ismail  Pasha,  supj)orted  with 
^■i;:our  and  with  coiisjd*  ralile  sums  the  pipantic  enterprise 
of  the  Su( /.  (anal.  cani(  d  out  under  the  super\ision  of 
tjie  IViiich  (  iiL'ineer  Less(  ps  wjth  the  aid  of  Napoleon  III 
and  with  IVi  iieh  capital  ;  it  was  oj)ened  in  iSO'.i,  Int<  rnal 
CMiiditioiis  in  Fu'Npt  became  shortly  aftt-rwards  anythint,' 
but  rea^^uriuL'  for  the  success  of  the  enterprise;  the 
Kliidi\("s  costly  administration  and  a])pallint:  e.\tra\a- 
^'aiu-e.  in  ei iiijunet ion  with  an  unsuccessful  \var  against 
.\b\svinia.  broULfht  about  a  hopeless  muddle  in  the  linancis  ; 
and  in  older  to  obtain  iunds  the  Khedi\"c  in  1S7.")  sold  his 
sliar<  s  Ml  tlie  Suez  Canal  to  Knu'land  for  *J1. ()()(). ()()().  The 
prodii.',ility  continu'-d,  and  soon  it  was  lound  impossible 
to  pay  til'-  intt  !•(  sf  on  the  debts,  so  that  FiiLrland  had  to 
ad\aiM'  til'-  int< n  st  on  th'-  ("anal  shares.  The  war  with 
Aby-sUiia,   ('Mi]»l((l   with   a   r(-\  olt    at    home,   added   to  t  he 

fuiatielal     chaos.     ;ind     the     Kuropean     creditors     Were     con- 

fi'  'lit '  d  w  if  li  t  hi  risk  of  lo^ini,'  th(  ir  mone\-  ;  aft  er  a  \iL,'orous 
protest  from  I'ln-jland  and  l-'rance.  demandin;/  reforms, 
Isniail  had  to  abdieat'-  and  the  country  was  j)!aced  under 
the  linaneial  control  of' an  I'aiL.di'-hman  and  a  I'"r<-nchman. 
wh'i  jiut  thf  finanei  s  m  order,  a  British  ll<  et  beint,'  at  the 
same  fun-  srnt,  in  support,  to  Alexnndi"ia.  The  Mmistt  r 
of  War.  Aralii  Pasha,  now  <  •ri.'am/' d  a  I'Sdlt  an<l  deniaiided 


British  and  French  Possessions        143 

the  abolition  of  European  financial  control.  The  popula- 
tion of  Alexandria  was  incited  apjainst  the  forei<,'ners,  and 
the  British  Fleet  therefore  bombarded  the  forts  of  the 
town  ;  after  a  terrible  massacre  of  Europeans  had  taken 
place,  the  liritish  occupied  the  city  and  defeated  Arabi's 
army  at  Tel-el- Keiiir  (July  1882).  The  British  trooi)S 
remained  in  occupation  of  the  country,  and  the  financial 
administration  was  entrusted  by  Tewlik,  the  Khedive,  to 
Kntjlishmen,  who  or^ranized  the  finances  witii  such  skill 
and  economy  that  there  was  soon  a  surplus. 

EuLrland  had  invited  France  to  join  her  in  qucllinir  the 
revolt,  but  France  declined  and  thus  lost  her  influence, 
England  obtaining  the  ascendancy  in  Egypt.  Thus,  by 
force  of  circumstances,  and  not  without  legitimate  claim, 
England  became  the  real  mistress  of  Egypt.  The  oecuj)a- 
tion  of  the  country  was  followed  by  the  struggles  with  the 
iMaluli  in  the  Sudan,  in  the  course  of  which  General  Gordon 
lost  his  life  (ISS.')).  The  British  took  Dongola  in  189G, 
and  thereujion,  in  1898,  embarked  on  a  new  exj^edition 
under  General  Kitchener,  to  reconquer  the  Sudan ;  a 
large  army  of  Dervishes  under  the  Mahdi  was  beaten, 
whereupon  Kitchener  marched  up  the  Nile  to  Fashoda. 
In  the  meantime  the  plucky  French  Major  Marehand,  at 
the  head  of  an  expedition,  had  marched  right  across  Africa 
from  the  Congo  and  arrived  at  Fashoda,  where  he  planted 
the  French  flag.  He  was  now  compelled  by  the  menacing 
attitude  of  England  to  haul  it  down  and  to  evacuate  the 
place  (December  1898).  This  humiliation,  which  nearly 
led  to  war,  was,  however,  atoned  for  shortly  afterwards 
by  a  treaty  with  England  (March  1899),  by  which  the 
23rd  degree  of  latitude  was  fixed  as  the  dividing  line  of 
the  spheres  of  interest  of  France  and  England  in  Central 
Africa. 

The  great  agreement,  the  Entente  of  1904  i)ctwcen 
England  and  France,  obliterated  all  remembrance  of  the 
Fashoda  episode  and  marked  the  inception  of  the  friend- 
ship between  these  two  countries.  In  a  secret  clause  of 
the  agreement  England  guaranteed  France  the  pos-^ession 


144        Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

of  Morocco  by  way  of  compensation  for  her  lost  position 
in  Egypt. 

France,  wlm-li  liad  l')n<,'  liad  colonies  -Alij;eria  dated 
from  Ih.'k)  and  was  constantly  being  augmented  <'mbarkeil 
in  the  seventies  on  a  new  colomal  poliey.  This  j)olicv 
encountered  many  serious  obstacles  and  s(n)n  met  with 
determined  opposition  from  leading  politicians  and  publie 
opinion,  it  bting  fcari-d  that  it  wouki  weaken  France's 
j>osition  in  Europe  and  prove  disastrous  to  the  country. 
N«  vrrthcless  the  policy  of  colonial  development  has  been 
followrd  by  all  (ioverrunents.  Jules  Ferry,  as  Foreign 
Minister,  in  the  middle  of  the  eighties  pursued  it  with 
great  vigour  and  obeyed  the  prudent  maxim  of  maintaining 
tricndly  relations  with  Germany,  whom  he  joined  in  safe- 
guarding European  interests  in  Egypt  and  ^^'(•st  Africa. 
H<  utilized  Frances  power  to  ae'cjuiie  Farther  India,  and 
thus  to  obtain  possession  of  .Amiam  ami  Tonkin. 

I'ntil  l.s'.».s  Fe-rry"s  successors  jiursued  the  same  tae'ties, 
uhieli  brought  them  the-  possessions  o|' Tuius.  .Sudan,  the 
l"n  iieli  Congo,  Madagascar,  anel  Indo  (  hina.  \\ithout 
l-'ranee  having  to  give  any  compensation  to  other  coun- 
tries, liut  m  that  year  a  serious  ehaiige  took  j)lace, 
Delcasst'-.  on  i)ce-oming  Foreign  .Minister,  abaneloning  the 
lri(  ndly  attitude  towards  (iermany.  II(  obtained  Moroe'e-o 
tor  I'Vanee  by  giving  e-onsidcrable  eompe  nsatioiis  to 
EiiL'Innd,  .Spain,  and  Italy,  whilst  (iermany.  in  s|)ite  of 
aeknowJidiTrd  mtirists  in  Morocco,  gut  nothing  a  dan- 
ge^■lll^  an<i  iinwisi  pohe-y.  Fltimately  1)(  Icasse'-'s  anti- 
(.••rman  policy  l<d  to  (icrmany  ele-maiiding  his  disnuNsal 
(  r.»(».")). 

Like  a  bolt  from  the  blur  came  the  mws  (.July  I'.Ml) 
tiiat  ;i  small  \sarsliip  dispat e'lu  d  by  (iermany,  the  I'lintlur, 
had  arri\c(I  at  .Vgaelir,  .a  seaport  in  .Southern  Morocco. 
'i'hi>  caused  the  greatest  sensation,  and  forni'd  the  sui)jeet 
ot  li\(ly  debates  m  (i(  rman,  I'inglisli,  and  IVeneh  news- 
papers. .Some  l"nglis|i  p.apers  took  the  line  that  (iermany 
iiad   thr   sam'     right    to   ;i   sjKci.al    mi-^sinn   a,    France-,   and 


The  Morocco  Disputk  with  CiKUMAxy    115 

tlial  the  liitlfi"  count ly  oii^lil  to  ucL  iii  coiicnl.  with 
Gcnnaii}'.  OHkis  (-(tuld  not  inukistaiul  how  u  (icrniau 
warship  could  he  sent  to  A<fa(hr,  uhicli  was  closed  to 
forci^Micrs  and  to  foreign  trade,  and  that  Germany's 
conduct  was  inconsistent  with  the  terms  of  the  Ali^eeiras 
Convention  re<farding  the  settlement  of  Moroccan  affairs, 
and  with  the  Franco-German  Ai^M'cement  of  !'.)()'.>. 

Germany's  Morocco  Note  to  tiie  Powers  contained  a 
statement  to  the  effect  that  "'  (ierman  lirnis  in  Southern 
Morocco,  especially  in  A<fadir  and  nei<,'hbourhood,  had 
bci'ii  rendered  iinedsij  by  eerlain  disturbances  in  other 
parts  of  the  country  and  had  therefore  a{)plied  to  the 
Government  askin<f  lV)r  proleelion  of  life  and  properly. 
For  this  reason  a  warshi[)  was  sent  to  A;L(adir,  in  order, 
if  necessary,  to  afford  the  desired  protection.  As  soon  as 
{)eace  and  order  were  restored  the  ship  would  leave 
Agadir.'' 

Negotiations  now  took  place  between  the  German  and 
French  Governments,  the  Germans  disclaiming  all  terri- 
torial ambitions  in  Morocco,  but  demanding  comi)ensation 
in  the  Congo  and  the  "  open  door  "  in  Morocco.  The 
French  Government  accejited  (in  Se})temi)er)  the  first 
condition,  and  shortly  afterwards  the  ])osition  in  Morocco 
was  defined  by  a  treaty  (November)  between  the  two 
Governments.  Under  this  treaty  the  French  (Government 
undertook  to  {preserve  the  economic  equality  of  the  diffi'rent 
nations  and  declared  that  the  ])rincij)le  of  the  "  open  door  "' 
wonld  l)c  respected.  The  German  Government,  on  the 
other  hand,  conceded  to  the  French  Government  full 
liberty  of  action  for  the  maintenance  of  order  in  Morocco 
and  for  the  carrying  out  of  needful  reforms. 

By  these  prudent  arrangements  the  ])ossible  causes  of 
a  conflict  were  removed  and  a  fresh  colony  was  secured 
for  Germany.  This  ought  to  have  satisfied  the  (German 
nation.  But  the  nascent  chauvinistic  current  of  opinion 
which  had  hoped  tVn'  the  acquisition  (^f  a  |)art  of  Morcx-co 
received  an  added  impetus  through  the  Agadir  affair,  and 
the  newspapers  expressed  themselves  in  very  heated  tones. 

K 


14C       Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

"G(.riiian\  K:i^  lu  \<.  r  hitlu  rto."  tiny  said,  "  asst  rtid  any 
claims  in  it  i^ard  to  Morocco.  altliou;,'h  lur  int(  rests  there 
Wire  consi(i(  ral)lc,  and  ut  cannot  look  on  with  <<iuaniniity 
whilst  I'rance  and  Si>ain  shart  the  jtlundtr."'  Many 
d(pliir<(l  the  jiassi\c  jioliey  of  the  (io\(  rnnu  lit  and  that 
it  had  dune  iiothin;^'  to  protect  (it  rnian  intirests,  and 
jiointeil  to  tiie  increastil  I'rench  acti\ity  in  Morocco  as 
oltst nut ini,'  Ci(  rnian  interests. 

The  I\lu  in.  lii^^tjiil-  Ziilini<^  wrote  (Sij)tcnil)(T  11)  that 
"There  is  n<>thin;j  hit  lor  us  hut  either  to  nlinijuish  all 
jiojitical  riL'hts  ni  Morocco  hy  an  i^'iioniinious  retreat  and 
to  ae(iui(  set  in  I'rances  political  and  ic-ononiic  protec- 
torate, or  to  demand  political  ri^dits  in  Morocco  and.  on 
the  hasis  of  thtsf,  (conomic  ri;^hts.  We  had  hoj)ed  that 
the  {ioV(  inment  would  realize  its  mistake  afttr  the  affair 
at   Aeadir." 

Wolffs  T(  le;,'ram  liunau  di  clarid  on  XoN't  niher  .'{  that. 
aee<,rdin;j  to  the  Al;:eciras  Convention,  no  sinu],.  I'ower 
had  a  ri'_'lit  to  (  stahlish  ord(  r  in  Morocco.  .\s  France  had 
ass.itid  this  riu'ht.  the  dt  rman  (io\(riini(  nt  rtiniiuhd 
her  of  the  j)ro\isions  of  the  .Mlti ciras  Cdn\(iilion  and 
point  (  d  out  t  hat  (iermany  \\  as  as  niuch  <  lit  it  led.  I)\-  s, ndinir 
a  warship,  to  salt  ;,'uard  1m  r  ri^'hts  as  l-"i-ance  was  to  protict 

IkIs. 

'1'Im-  .^Ioro(■(■o  dispute  was  hound  uj)  with  the  secret 
claiis-  in  th<-  aL.'re(  inenf  of  I'.tdl  hitwten  l-'-nL'land  and 
I'ranee,  in  which  I'rance  was  guarantied  the  possession 
ot     Molded)    as    coiiipe  iisal  ion    I'or    lur    withdrawal    from 

I>\  this  diputi  (leiinanN'  secured  a  con>ideral»le  LTain, 
aiid  t!i-  hrntoiA  ui  f  h-  (  om^io  wa^  sur-K  inoi-(  xahiahje 
than  a  -tiip  o|  land  in  Moi-,,eeo,  as  it  .-niiwuis  an  i Aisijn;^' 
(i-rinan  eolcin\.  'I'lie  dispute  eould  n-  \  (  r,  ni  the  unnds 
of  thinkiiiL'  p'ojile.  lia\e  JMiciuie  a  pi't(\t  lor  war.  and 
N  <  t .  as  ni'  nt  loned  al)o\  (  .  it  l';i\  ■  n^'  to  a  In  :tt  ■  (I  aijit  at  ion 
ainoii^'  (iirnian\'s  diss.it  i -In  d  eliau\  mist  >.,  and  (ii  rural 
H'inhaidi  made  it  his  nareiy  in  the  prel;iee  (dated 
()eto|„r    |!tll)    of    his    ImioJ;    Civunnj    ,iv,l    t/,r    .\  t  1 1    lim. 


France's  Peaceable  Feeling  to  Germany  147 

The  author,  who,  by  his  work,  cicsirrtl  to  sliinulatc  the 
warhkc  spirit  of  the  (jtrriKins  and  sj)ur  thcin  on  to  Ircsh 
concjucsts,  writes  lure  witli  arn)^'uiit  j)athos  : 

"All  the  j)atriotie  seetioiis  of  tlie  (ierinaii  j)eoj)lr  were 
deeply  stirred  durinf;^  the  summer  and  autumn  of  1'.>11. 
The  eonviction  lay  heavy  on  all  hearts  that  the  settKinent 
of  tlie  Morocco  disj)ute  invc^lved  no  mere  eonuncreial  or 
colonial  questions  of  minor  imj)ortanee,  hut  that  the 
honour  and  fuiurc  of  the  German  nation  were  at  stake. 
A  deej)  rift  has  opened  between  the  feeliuir  of  the  nation 
and  the  dii)lomaey  of  the  Government.  Public  ojjinion 
seems  to  have  a  clearer  conception  of  its  will  to  assert  the 
status  of  the  nation  than  of  the  danfjers  of  the  ])()litieal 
})osition  and  the  saerilices  which  a  boldly  outlined  jK)liey 
must  demand.  .  .  .  Petty  bargainini;f  is  as  ])ronouneed 
a  characteristic  in  our  Berlin  of  the  present  day  as  it 
was  in  the  Regcnsburg  of  old." 

C.  The  Peaceable  Feeling  in  France  towards 
Germany 

Dr.  A.  Zinmiermann,  Im]")erial  Legation  Coimeillor.  y>\\h- 
lished  at  the  beginning  of  the  World  War  in  Die  WocJic 
(August  22,  1914)  the  following  indictment  of  France  : 
'"  France's  old,  irrepressible  tliirst  for  vcniianwe  has,  of 
course,  in  no  small  measm-e  contributed  towards  bringing 
about  the  World  War.  All  Germany's  friendly  overtures 
have  been  in  vain,  as  has  been  the  creation  of  strong 
common  interests  between  the  two  neighbours,  so  closely 
dependent  on  one  another.  The  great  colonial  empire 
created  with  Germany's  help  has  not  enabled  leading 
circles  in  France  to  forget  the  loss  of  Alsace-Lc^'raine.  As 
it  turns  out.  the  republican  form  of  government  is  no 
better  able  than  the  old  monarchical  system  to  curb  the 
iurbulcni  passion  for  adventure  uJiicli  Juis  so  nften  /nade 
France  the  disturber  of  the  ivorld's  peace." 

But  I  think  that  the  following  statement  describes  more 
trulv  the  state  of  feelinfj  in  France  in  recent  times  :    The 


1  is        Hi:r()Hr.,  Dihinc.  and  Aftku  IIUI- 

tli'iu^'lit  t«r  \  film  aiicc  fJt  r  ."««  was  l»y  ili-;irtts  l*>r;:uttrii, 
alt  liou^'li  till-  li<>|)<  til'  a  It  \  isit'ii  (••>iic«riiiii^'  AUacc  Lorraiiu- 
Was  mmral.  IJut  it  may  truly  In-  said  that  a  war  on 
acci'unt  III  t!i(s(  |»ri  i\  iiMis  was  coiitt  niplattd  hy  no  one 
at  tli(  Ik  ;,'iniiinL:  '•'  '1''^  (<  ntiir\.  uiiK  ss  l)y  a  liundful  <>f 
SI  ii->.  1(  Ns  laiiatics,  too  few  to  iiilliK  lice  |nil»lic  opinion. 
l-"iaiu-c  lias  s(  (  II  too  iniicli  of  war  to  (K  sue  luorc  ol  it. 

Till-  l'r<  ndi  nation,  acctirdin;.;  to  roni]>(ttiit  fort  ij^Mi 
judLTf^  \slio  lia\f  known  I'rancf  intimately  for  <lccadrs, 
was  o\  (  lu  In  lmin;;ly  in  t"a\our  ol"  jx  ace.  a  statcnunt  which 
Is  ti  >iiiiriii(  (1  l)\  thr  ardent  (  fforts  which  so  many  Krcnch- 
ni'  n  ha\c  jnit  forth  for  the  cause  of  ptace.  hoth  in  j)caci' 
s.Kit  ties  and  at  ptaee  ci  m^'risses.  I  can  testify  that  at  the 
\\''>ild's  1*(  ace  (onuit  ss  at  IlamlturL.'  m  Is'.*?  many  Krciu-h 
rej.it  s.  iitat  i\  (  s  (lis|ila\cd  the  utmost  cordiality  towards 
(iermany. 

With  a  \  iew  to  ase.rtaininij  I-'reiich  opinion  rcLMrdini,' 
the  rilatidiis  with  ( ii  rman\.  t  he  rt  \  i(  \s  M(  rciirt' <lt  France 
SI  nt  out.  111  the  autumn  of  Is'.tT.  a  list  of  (|U(stioiis  to 
«-niment  l"reiiehm(  n.  and  r<c(i\((i  1  K»  aiis\\(is.  t  he 
majority  of  whii-li  w  i  ri  f^r  r<  coneihat  ion  and  peace.  It 
was  curious  to  tind  that  the  older  |-"rencliiii(  n  w  (  le  t  he 
ni'Te  chauxiiiistic  and  (ith(r  made  (  niphatie  rt  si  i-\  at  ions 
or  e\press<(|  theniscKcs  stroiielv  against  the  sunriider 
of  p.it  ri"t  ie  a  spiral  ions  :  in  doin'j  ^o  t  he\  w  ere  not  inspired 
1>\  h.itf.  d  of  (i(rnian\.  hut  hv  concern  for  the  future  of 
th'  I'riiich  race,  nor  diil  tliev  contem])late  any  l-icnch 
111  L'emony,  hut  e\piiss<(i  the  tear  that  lt\  a  complete 
r- e.  .neiliat  ii '11  with  di  rman\  the  l-'iench  spnif  mi^^ht 
Imc.iii'-  I'  ^-  mllu'iitial  than  tin  (iermaii  spint.  Some, 
aeaui,  c'liiti  lull  d  that  the  ii  linijuishiiK  nt  h'r  'jood  and  all 
of    \Nae.    I.Miiaini-  wiiiild  desti-.i\    the  natii>n:i!  haeklione. 

^!l|^t     i.f    tic-    \"unL'er     l-'ii  nehiniii     were    m     fa\our    of 
line,  iiclit  1. -nal     ri  ci  .neiliat  c  ui     with     (iirman\   ;      sunn      e\ 
I'l.iini  d    till  ir   .ittitiidi     sciji  \\    li\    tin  ir   dis.ippr.  .\  al    ol    w.ir, 

'■tjc!--       \<\       tic       ijesn-e      f.pp      M'lld:iflt\       ;tmiillL,'      the      leading 

ei\i!i/-d    natiMiis    in    ;,'■  in  ral.    and    "tinrs,    aL';uii.    Ii\     pliilo 
•■•p!!i      11  lilt  I  mplat  II  III     o|     he-tiineal     and     si>ci:il     factors; 


France's  Peaceable  Feelinc;  to  Germany   IK) 

several  of  tluin  exliihited  j^emiiiic  admiration  and  apprc- 
eiation  of  (icriiian  civili/ation,  wliich  forms  a  natural  com- 
plement to  the  Latin  anil  Celtie  eivili/ation  r(j)rcscnt((l 
by  France,  hut  a  few  displayed  concern  at  and  antipathy 
against,  Slavism,  and  above  all  a<^ainst  the  Hritish. 

In  general  they  seemed  to  dwell  upon  the  inalienabh; 
love  of  France  in  the  lost  provinces.  Somt;  of  the  younger 
men  proclaimed  the  union  ol"  Alsace  and  the  greater 
part  of  Lorraine  with  (iermany  as  an  historical  and  ethno- 
logical necessity,  a  view  which  alrcadij  before  llw  tear  had 
many  chamj)ions  among  the  jio|)ulation  of  those  |)rovinces. 
Some  declared  that  the  alleged  decline  of  France  is  alto- 
gether superficial  and  that  the  spirit  of  the  nation  would, 
when  an  emergency  arose,  assert  itself  with  the  same 
irresistible  eUni  as  of  f)ld.  On  the  whole,  even  the  most 
sanguine  j)atriots  had  to  admit  that  a  :c(ir  icilli  Gcnminy 
xcoiild  find  fcxc  ,s}/mp(ithizers  in  France.  In  the  first  i)lace, 
the  French  i)coplc  detests  war,  and  any  incitement  of  the 
national  spirit  would  be  impotent  in  the  face  of  the  growing 
scepticism  of  the  people  ;  moreover,  one  would  have  to 
reckon  with  the  solidarity  among  the  zvorlxers  of  different 
nations. 

How  the  cause  of  peace  had  progressed  and  the  idea 
of  revenge  had  receded  in  France  by  the  end  of  the  nineties 
may  be  gathered  from  the  many  pro})osals  made  for  a 
settlement  of  the  Alsace-Lorraine  question  and  a  perma- 
nent reconciliation  with  Germany.  The  French  Admiral 
Reveillere  j)ro})osed  in  1899  that  Alsace-Lorraine  should 
be  declared  neutral  and  placed  under  Germany's  military 
protection  and  continue  to  form  ])art  of  the  German 
Zollverein,  a  view  which  was  shared  by  Leroy-Beaulieu. 
Gaston  Moch,  the  author,  made  an  equally  ccnieiliatory 
jiroposal  (1899),  which  was  as  follows  : 

''(1)  Alsace-I^orraine,  to  be  declared  independt  nf  and 
neutral,  shall  l)e  called  the  Rhine  KeiuibHc.  (Germany 
shall  receive  a  suitable  comj)ensati()n  for  the  territory  she 
now  owns  in  Alsace-Lorraine,  and  for  the  wt)rk  she  has 
carried  out  there. 


150       Before,  During,  and  After  1*J1-1 

"  (*2)  The  Rhine  Republic  shall  be  disarmed,  besides  which 
France  and  Gerniany  shall  undertake  to  create  a  neutral 
zone  betwren  their  arniirs  and  the  boundaries  «>f  the 
nrw  State. 

*■  (.'})  (i(  rniany.  Kranee,  and  the  Rhine  Ripublie  shall 
conclude  a  mutual  '  Treaty  of  Friendshiji."  The  main 
features  <»f  this  treaty  sjiall  be  as  follows  : 

'■  (ti)  An  aj^'reiinent  for  the  institution  of  a  i)ermanent 
Arbitration  Triljunal. 

"  (/')  A  eomjilete  Kconomie  Alliance. 

■■  ((  )  A  military  Defensiw  Alliance  which  shall  imj)ly 
no  threat   to  other  Stated. 

■■  ('/)  The  (  sfablishment  of  a  Franco-Cierman  Model 
I'ni\er^ity  at  Strasbur^'.  the  main  mission  of  which  shall 
bi-  to  asvi>t  Alsace  Lorraine  in  aceomjilishini:  the  attractive 
ta^k  of  forminL,'  u  cnnnaiin'^  linl:  between  th<-  leading 
cultured  iiaf  ions  of  Central   I'',uro|)e."' 

II.  I'f  rnau,  a  (ii  iiiian  \slio  had  lived  in  l"'ranee  for  ten 
y<;ir'>.  e\['i«  s^ed,  in  his  book  I)i(-  /"/v//r.o.v/.v(7/e  Di  nmhrdlit' 
(I'.Ht).  the  lirm  e«>n\iet ion  that  the  \ast  majority  of  the 
l-'rench  |>('«|,lc  are  pi  aeelo\  in;,'  and  by  no  means  want 
a  war  of  i-(\(  n^e  on  aeeount  of  .Msaee  Lorraine,  IL- 
deTioimeis  e«itain  eliau\  ini^t  s  \vht)  Iia\  e  b(  en  shontinjt; 
for  re\eni,'e  and  \vrit(s:  ""  In  spile  ,,{'  all  <  fforts  l)y  the 
L'ood  patriots,  there  exists  nn  i^tHtrcl  dpinimi  in  faxour 
III  rditi'ji  (rjtiin.'^l  ii< nnmi ij,  but,  at  the  most,  a  pati'iotic 
willin-jness  to  zvii'ji    II  (!i  fi  nsivi-  xcur. 

Aee.  iidiiiL:  to  I'ernaii.  the  war  traditions  in  l-'ranee  are 
t  li<  toiil;!  1\'  und<  I'MiiiH  d.  A  strikiuL,'  proof  hereof  is  fnr- 
ni^li' <1  b\  til--  I'.iet  that  a  lar^e  nundx  r  of  piiniaiy  school 
te.uliiis  lia\<-  j'-iii'(i  tl"-  .mti  miht.iiist  propaganda  of 
tin-  \soi  krii<  II.      \N  h'  II  t  h<'  pat  riot  ie  Ln  ss  in  I ',»]  'J  rejM-oaeh(  d 

tli'Ill    oil    fills    ;ieec.;i|it,    th'-    ei'nilllltl'c    i 't     the    Hon    |ioHtieal 

I'liion  of  'I'l  aeli- r  .  wliieli  eonsj.ts  of  '.IS. ()()(»  nn  inliers, 
I-.SIII  (i  an  e\p!aii.it  ion  in  whieh  t  hi  \-  said:  '■Inasmuch 
as  t  h<  t' aeli- rs  ni'isf  riaHlim  th'ir  p.ieilisf  tendencies  .and 
tl-ii  b"  h<  f  in  the  r-.-ih/aticii  of  t  h>  id' a  of  jnt  t  rnat  loii.il 
ai  I'lt  rat  i' >n.  th'N    d'sui-  to  jioint    out    that    they  te.aeh  their 


France's  Peaceable  Feeling  to  Germany  151 

pupils  a  patriotism  which  is  based  on  a  sense  of  justice 
and  a  respect  for  the  rights  of  others.  .  .  .  Tiiey  condemn 
emphatically  the  short-sighted,  jealous,  and  a;,'^ressivc 
chauvinism  as  a  dan<jrer  to  the  safety  of  the  nation." 

What  a  contrast  between  this  French  j)atriotisin  and 
the  degeneration  of  the  German  patriotism  of  Germanistic 
teachers  after  the  defeats  in  Napoleon's  wars  into  a 
policy  of  brute  force  and  of  utter  disre^mrd  for  the  rijjjhts 
of  nations  ! 

No,  in  France  those  who  in  chauvinistic  delirium  shouted 
for  revenge  arc,  indeed,  but  a  small  minority.  The  people 
have  long  ago  ceased  to  believe  in  its  i)ossibility,  and 
most  of  them  have  urged  a  friendly  policy  towards  Ger- 
many. A.  Guerard,  a  Frenchman,  writing  on  '"  France 
antl  the  War  of  Revenge  "  in  the  Contcmporarrj  Rcvicio 
for  September  191  l-,  has  ably  dealt  with  this  subject. 

A  promising  rapprochement  between  Germany  and 
France  was  inaugurated  by  the  Interparliamentary  Con- 
ferences, the  initiative  of  which  was  taken  in  1913  by  a 
German  Reichstag  member,  the  Social  Democrat  Dr. 
Franck,  who  has  been  killed  in  the  war  by  an  enemy 
bullet.  The  other  Franco-German  Conference  was  held 
in  the  sj)ring  of  191-1  at  B;ile,  and  the  delegates  assembled 
therein  represented  a  majority  of  the  Parliaruents  of  both 
countries.  It  was  resolved  to  hold  a  similar  jx-aee  con- 
ference in  September  1911,  but  at  that  time  the  war 
was  already  raging.  The  chief  item  on  its  agenda  was 
to  be  the  reconciliation  of  France  and  Germany.  The 
movers  of  the  resolutions  were  to  be  deputies  belonging 
to  the  popular  parties  of  both  countries. 

In  the  sj)ring  of  1914  the  French  de]:)uty  Scmbat,  now 
a  member  of  the  Government,  ]:)ublished  a  book  in  which 
he  advised  France  definitely  to  reliiKpiish  the  idea  of 
revenge,  and  went  so  far  as  to  suggest  tliat  France  sJK^uld 
abandon  the  alliance  with  Russia  and  Fngliuul  and,  in- 
stead, join  the  Triple  Alliance.  The  majority  of  the 
Chamber  of  Dej)uties  were  in  favour  of  reconciliation  with 
Germanv. 


1j2        13i:iuhe,  Dlhinc;,  and  Aiteu  lUll 


I).     (ii.ltMANV    HAS    Ntir    Hl.r.N    Til  Ul.A  rF.NKI)    BY    lU  SSIA 

Tliat  tli(  |>;u-itic  s»  ntiiiu  nts  which  had  j^'radually  L';>inc(l 
;,'rtiun(l  in  iMiroj)*-.  and  whicli  Iniiiid  (  \j>r«ssiiMi  in  the 
Iiit(  rparhaiiu  ntaiA  t'lHitVn  iici  s,  \\(  if  not  allowed  to  'xar 
I'ruit  was  (hir.  in  the  ojiniioii  of  many,  to  thr  ""  war 
at,^tatol■■^."'  and  the  (itrnian  pai  liann  ntarian  Ciothtiin 
lin  lirilimr  'l\rj.(  hhitt.  Dtrcinix  r  I'.UH.  in  N|i(akinj,'  of 
thi-  l{u>-sian->.  said:  "'  'I'hat  is  why  the  (ircat  Scrhian 
aL:itat<irs  incit(d  to  thr  jilot  (aL'ainst  the  Austrian  heir 
appart  lit  ).  and  that  is  the  cause  of  the  it>lri<iuts  in 
cnnuiinu  -iitli  tJif  St.  Ptti  r.shui'j.  visit  nf  tin  Frtucli 
I'fi --idi  nt  mid  tilt  I'ltsiilinl  nf  the  CinttuiL  l)oth  of  whom 
w  I  K  woik<(l  njion  \\ithoiit  thi  ii-  coHcamiis  in  the  (ioxcrn- 
nunf,  \^  ho  w  ( n  an\thinu'  l>ut  Ik  Ihcosc.  ha\  in^'  anyt  hiiiLj 
to   ^a\." 

Thus  iti  a  f<  Nv  Words  (iothiim  dismiss,  s  thr  Srihiaii 
coiithrl  ajid  impudriitK  im|iutts  to  thr  !• 'n  ncli  I'r- sid,  nt 
am!  thr  l*r(  si(|,  lit  ot'  thr  (oiniril  thr  plan  of  ha\ni>:.  hy 
iiitnuu-s  with  flir  Hussiaii  ( .o\  ri  ihik  nt .  liron<_'jit  ahout 
this  Wmid  War.  "tlK  L'icatrsI  (Time  »  \ .  i-  romnntttd 
aL'ani'^t    huniamt\.  ' 

Acr.irdinu'  to  him,  (..!iiian\  and  Austria  h:i\r  no  ^hair 
m  it.  ■"  \N'r  ha\i  .  "  lp  sa\s.  ■"striNrn  up  to  tin  last  to 
iiinnifuni    pitni     and    ha\r    iinU     tak<n    up    arms    to    tiijniil 

nil  I     (   I  isl(  lit  )  . 

It  has  al-o  111.  11  ^aid  in  (irrmauN'  tii.it  thr  (i<inia!iir 
lar.-  \-,as  ni'iiacid  l.\  | 'a  n  Sl.ixi^m  .'ind  t  h.it  thr  \\ji(pjr 
.^1  I  \  otiir  \\  I  ,rld  \'.  a  >  thi'  .it  '111  d  With  sii  1  iji  it  ion  to  IJiissi.an 
in]'-  I  M  ,-;iUs'-  |{  II  ^  -i;i  sii  I ,[  H  Pit  (  1 1  S-  il  ii.i.  Till  -  I  -  lit  1 1  il\ 
iinira  I  iii.iMi  .  I'l  .lit  ir.il  I'.iii  Sla\  I -111.  .1^  I  h.i\i  al'iad\ 
point  -  d  "lit  *  ji.  I'H  I.  I  ,  inn  M  p■^  il.j.  |.  .|  -  <  \  <  r,d  ii  ,isi  mis.  j'.uf 
>  \  '  n  il  it  CI  111  li  I  1 1'  !i  ;(li/<  d.  il  li\  iio  nil  ;in  .  ti  illow  s  t  h.it 
thi.  inipli-  .  th'-  -nhju'j.i' ii '11  III  .i!|  .s1m\  nati.iiis  iindi  r 
Km  la.  \\hirh  in  th.tt  lai  W'Uild  <<itaiiil\  L'am  s(.nic 
dali;/i  roll-  .-dll'-,  li' ir  \M-iild  it  iii-aii  tl.i  diiwnlall  oj"  thr 
(i'liiMiiir     \\'i!ld.         l{otli     I'l'iMiiiN     t,|      natiiiiis     ma\      \  i  r\- 


Germany  not  Tiikeati:ni:d  uy  Id  sma    ly.i 

well  lead  an  independent  existence  and  learn  to  icsixct 
one  another. 

No,  the  talk  of  the  Slav  menace  a<^ainst  the  |)osilion 
of  the  Germanic  rac-e  is  nothin<,'  i)ut  a  |)hrase,  an  e(jiiiv(j- 
eation  with  which  to  ronse  German  opinion  and  create 
general  patriotic  enthusiasm  for  the  defence  of  the  country 
aj^ainst  a  supj)ositious  enemy.  It  is  ;i  deliberate  "  su<,'(res- 
tion,"  and  the  intention  is  clearly  to  show  how  (iernuuiy 
has  been  compelled  by  an  o\'erhan^in<T  menace  to  waf^'c 
war  ajrainst  Russia. 

(iermany  has  seldom  had  Russia  for  an  enemy  ;  on 
the  contrary,  she  has  usually  been  her  Ally.  It  is  true 
that  in  the  Seven  Years  War  (175G-0.'3)  Elizabeth  had  an 
alliance  with  Maria  Theresa  directed  aj^jainst  I-'riderick 
the  (irc-at,  but  after  her  death  Peter  III  contracted  an 
alliance  with  Frederick.  The  latter  also  nuide  an  alliance 
with  Catherine  II  in  1 70 1.  In  a  couple  of  coalitions  a<,'ainst 
France  duriuf^  the  Revolution  Russia  acted  jointly  with 
Austria  and  Prussia,  and  after  the  dissolution  of  the 
alliance  with  Xa})oleon,  entered  into  by  Alexander  I  at 
Tilsit  in  1807,  Russia  once  more  (181. '3)  joined  Austria  and 
Prussia  to  liberate  them  from  the  Xa{)oleonic  yoke.  Evt-r 
since  that  time  friendly  relations  have  subsisted  between 
Russia  and  Germany.  In  fact,  it  was  Russia's  bene\'olent 
neutrality  in  1870  which  shielded  Germany  I'rom  an 
attack  by  her  opjionents  of  Sadowa.  It  is  true  that  the 
friendshij)  has  always  been  subject  to  Prussia's  military 
predominance  beiuL^  kej)t  within  ccrt:ain  limits.  By  the 
victories  of  the  latter  over  Austria  and  France  this  condi- 
tion ceased  to  be,  and  by  the  accomplishment  of  (ierman 
unity  in  1871  Russia's  iurtuence  over  the  small  Cxermau 
states,  founded  on  family  alliances,  disa[-)j)eared.  livery 
coniliet  between  Russia  and  Germany  was  pi'ex'ented 
by  the  friendship  which  united  Alexander  II  with  his 
uncle  ^Villiam  I,  and  tlie  last  advice  tlu'  latttM-  uavi'  his 
grandson  on  his  deathbed  was  tt)  keep  on  uood  terms 
with  Russia. 

Soon   after   the   assassination   of  AlexancUr    II    (1881), 


15i        Before,  Diuinc,  and  Ai^er  TJli 

Iiowi  vor.  siricus  ajjitat  imis  arose  which  fostrrcd  the 
antaj;(niisin  httwitii  Russians  and  (itriiian«;.  In  Russia, 
Austria  Hungary  was  accused  of  opprcssiui^r  tlic  Sla\  s 
m  tliat  ni<inarch\  and  ni  harliouriii;,'  thr  an>l)iti<ni  of 
suhduin^  the  whole  Balkan  peninsuhi.  and  tht  susjiicion 
was  also  e\|.risS((l  that  lierniany  cont(  injilati  tl  the 
annexation  of  Russian  Haltic  proNineis.  Nuiik  rous 
demonstrations  ai^'aiiist  the  (itrniaiis  took  place  in  Russia, 
and  it  st  enied  in  the  middle  of  the  liudities  as  if  tin-  twt) 
States  \s(re  | irej sariui,'  lor  an  in<\ital)le  war.  It  was  at 
that  tim<-  that  Russia  e\|ielled  the  (iermans  from  the 
Haltic  [)ro\iiiees.  and  (iermany  exjiilhtl  Russia's  Polish 
sul>j(cts  from  her  Mast  (in  pioN  inc(  s. 

In  the  end.  howcNt  r.  the  tension  ri  IaX( d,  and  iiotwitji- 
standuiL'  th<  conclusion  of  the  I'"rarieo  Russian  Alliance 
(IM'P.  the  L""'d  relations  lutwccn  R\issia  and  (iermany 
reiiiaiiK  d   undisturhed    until    I'.tll. 

William  II  \isited  Nicholas  II  at  .St.  IN  t (  rshin <:  in  IMtT, 
and  their  r<latioris  wire  most  cordial,  the  two  nionarchs 
em|ihasi/iiii/  in  tlnir  s]i((ch(s  '"the  traditional  bonds 
which  unit(d  tluni"  and  "the  traditional,  coiu-ordant, 
and  unalt  I  raliK'  harmonions  relations  Ii(tw((n  their 
conntriis."  'I'hi  y  m<  t  at  I-"redrikshamn.  in  the  (iulf  of 
I'liiland.  in  r.M".».  at  Potsdam  in  r.tlC  and  aijam  at  Hal- 
tisehjoit  in  r.HL'.  on  wlii<h  occasion  thi\-  W(re  aecom- 
jiani<  d  1>\'  t  1m  ir  Minist  <  rs  with  a  \iew  to  liiscussinLT  j-olit  ii-al 
•  jU'-tioiis.  Miii'oNir.  till  (iirman  Chanci  llor  H<thmann- 
Ih.jlu.  -  \  isit.  d  St.  r.  t.  rslMMLT  in  I'.H'J.  .\I1  these  uk  (  tini:s, 
whieh  tof.k  plai'^  diiriic'  the  Halkan  eont!iet<.  wtir  dis- 
tin:.Miidi'd  l'\  til'-  >aii;i-  I'll'  ndl\  spint  as  in  l.s'.t?,  and  the 
s[.i((l:is  <  III!  .ji;i  ,1/' (I  til'  ■■mutual  tiusf  h(  t  \\  I  <  n  t  he 
monaI(■!;^'■  aiid  tl,<  "■•ji...(|  i.lations  1..  twi.n  t  In  ir  c<  mn- 
tri's.  It  wa^  put  on  i-ec.rd  .at  the  nn' tint's  (>!"  t  he 
.^lIm  ■  t  ■  rs  that  "  t !)«  i'  \\ :,  no  di-coid  c  .n  eiii  i  <  nt  (pa  st  |(  ,ns 
and  that  th-  t  w  o  St  at  -  s  u  ,  .n  Id  ■'  eo  o|  ,  rat.  towards  |,ndinL,' 
n  p'ac'tul  solution  for  '  \  -  r\  political  (pastinii  which 
mii'ht  .arise."' 

In     r.M  t    all    this    \\as    c);aiiL''d.      TIk     \<\\     Hu^Ma    who 


Germany  not  Threatened  by  Russia    155 

had  never  threatened  Germany  and  had  been  her  friend 
and  ally  for  a  eentury  was  now  declared  to  he  her  enemy, 
a  barbarous  country  polluted  by  Muscovitism  and  Tartar- 
dom,  and  the  very  Tsar  who  had  so  recently  been  Enijxror 
William's  friend  was  now  (unjustly)  branded  as  having 
acted  the  part  of  a  liar  in  the  telegraphic  correspondence 
between  them. 


XII      continued 
TIIK   WORLD   WAR   OF   lOU 

TAHT  11 

A.  iMMi.niATi:  Cm  SI'S  oi-  iin:  Woki.d  W'ak  :  Tikki-v's 
Oi'n;i>->i<iN  (»r  im.  Haikan  Piuivinc  i.s.  Ri.vo- 
l.^lHl^Al•^■  Mi  ivimi.n  i  •-,  1{is>ia"s  i'noiiu  i  ion.  rm: 
Ucsso TiifKisii  Wak  :  Tni.  Hi.in.iN  CoNciii.ss  oi- 
IsTS  :  Ai^iKi\"s  Anmxaihin  oi  Rosnia  and 
IIiii/icoN  iNA  :'riii.  (iiti.Ai  Sr.i;iUAN  Miivr.Mi.N  |-  :  'I'lir. 
Mi  i;i>r.it  oi    iiii.  Ikown  I'hinci.  I'ilvncis  I'ihiunam)  : 

Ar-«ll;lA's   NdIT.  To  Sl.KI'.IA. 

'I'm.  iiiiiii<(li;itc  cause  of  the  World  War  of  I'.Ml-  was  the 
murili  r  of  hr  Austriun  liiir  (ippditnt  I''ninii\  Ftrdnnind 
ami  Ills  CMiisMit .  ciiiiiiiiit  ted  tiii  .Iimc  *JS  in  Bosnia's 
(■aj>ifal.  S'iaji\n,  l)\-  the  t  went  V  year  old  l{<psnian  student 
l'rinci|).  'I'lie  murder  \\as  eoniM cted  with  a  stroULi:  Serhian 
aL'it  at  loll,  and  as  Austria  was  of  the  opinion  that  the 
S<  rliian  (ei\t  rinn<nt  was  lesponsilile  I'or  it.  sjie  made 
war  on  Siitiia.  with  thr  i-esnit  that  ot  hei'  Powirs  \s  <  re 
<lra\\ii    in. 

I{'  hind  this  |)it>\iinat  f  cause  of  I  hi  Aus(io  .Si  ihi;in  con- 
l!li  t  la\  allot  h-r  cause  of  t  hi-  'jnatist  si^r|,ilicanee.  which 
explains  thi'  niuidi  r  at  Siiaj'  \o,  iianii  ly,  .iustrm's 
iin  III  '  III  Kiti   III   liii^nui  mid  N  i  r  <  ■Jn;  i  ini . 

Ho-iiia  arid  I  li  r/i<,fo\  in.i,  wliosr  [Hi|iulation  is  mainly  of 
S.  iImi  (  lo.itian  nationalit\.  had  t.i  lotiL,'!  d  at  diffi  |i  lit  tuiHs 
'  it  h'  I   t .  I  I  IwuL'arN   oj-  to  tie    old  kiiiLidom  of  Siihia.  or  had 

i:.t; 


Immkdiatk  Caises  ok  Tin:  \N'()HM)  War    loT 

IxfU  ail  iii(l(|)cn(l(iil    kiii^uloiu,  hut  caiiu'  by  coiKiucst,  in 
1  K).'i,  uiidcr  Turkish  rule* 

The  tl(  IV('ti\t'  adininist ration  and  shaky  linanccs  of 
Turkey,  tlio  ahsencc  of  disciphne  auion^rst  ollicials,  the- 
tyranny  of  taxes,  the  perseeution  of  t  he  Chiist  ians  all  t  jiese 
factors  eoiuhined  to  weaken  the  position  of  the  country 
more  and  more  (hirin<^  the  seventies  and  to  create  dis- 
satisfaction amont^'  the  I'iUropean  tril)utary  States: 
llinnania,  Bultraria,  Serl)ia,  .Montenegro,  Bosnia,  Iler/e- 
goviiia,  etc.  The  imsettlement  was  uni\'ersal,  and  they 
were  all  nurely  waitinfj  for  an  opportimity  to  throw  off  the 
yoke.  The  sitrnal  for  the  revolt  was  friven  in  IST.')  in 
HerzcffoN'ina,  where  the  Christians  had  been  ine( used  by 
a  loni;  succession  of  atrocities  connnitted  l)y  Turkish  tax- 
collectors  supported  by  soldiery,  and  finally  resorted  to 
arms.  Volunteers  from  Serbia  and  Montenegro  came  to 
their  assistance,  and  all  capable  of  bearintr  arms  took  part 
in  this  war  of  liberation  and  retril)ution.  The  aml)assadors 
of  tlic  Powers  at  Constant in()j)le  deemed  it  their  (hity  to 
intervene  to  help  the  ()j)prcsscd,  and  the  insui'tvcnts  declared 
that  they  would  not  lay  down  arms  unless  the  Great 
Powers  |Tuaranteed  certain  reforms,  which,  however,  they 
were  imable  to  do.  The  fanaticism  anions  the  Turks  made 
matters  worse  in  the  Balkan  States  ;  the  (ierman  and 
Frcncii  Consuls  at  Salonica  were  miuxlered.  and  revoltinsr 
massacres  took  })lacc  in  Bultraria.  In  that  coimtry  a 
general  revolt  broke  out  in  187.>,  ^^•hieh  was  more  than 
justified  l)y  the  long-borne  opi)ression  :  but  as  it  was 
inadequately  prepared  and  arms  were  lacking  (the  Christians 
were  not  allowed  to  bear  arms  in  the  Turkish  jn-ovinces).  it 

*  The    popululidu    of    Hosiiia    aad    Herzejioviiia    was    in     1S79, 
1,158,114  ;    in  11)10,  l.SU8,12-J— nuidc  up  :is  follows  : 


Grci'k  Catholics    . 
Roman  Catholics  . 
Mohainnicchms 
Jews 
Protestants 


In  1871) 

In  HtlO 

4iHi.  isr, 

s:5:5.(;is 

2()!».:5n 

i;u.i<»(» 

iisjiia 

()1'_'.U9() 

;{.  n.'t> 

11,.S.">7 

2  19 

r>.XM 

158        Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

nuitd  in  drtViit.  Thr  most  appallini,'  atrocitiis  were  coni- 
iiiiltnl  by  the  Turks  in  isTiI  in  suppri'ssin*,'  tlic  nvolt. 
1.'>,<M»()  piTsons  hcini,'  inunlc-rrd.  The  whole  of  Kurupo 
was  liorriti<  il.  and  (Gladstone  llunt,'  out  a  witlii  rin;r  prott-st 
a^'ainst  tliisi'  Hul^'arian  niassacn  s.* 

Strhians  and  Montt-nc^jrins  t'ontinucd  the  insuncclion 
and  atlackid  the  Turks  in  May  1S70;  soon  altrr  tin-  in- 
surgents in  IJosnia  j)ro<.'laiined  Milan,  the  I'rincc  of  Serbia, 
their  ruler,  whilst  the  IIerze;^'ovinians  aekn<»wledi,'c-d  the 
ovt  rl(jrdship  of  Prince  Xikita  of  Montene<^ro  (.June  ISTO). 
IJosnias  union  with  Sirbia  and  lIer/e<,'ovina"s  union  with 
MontrncLjro  thus  heeaine  a  siiu-  qua  non  of  j)eaee  with 
Turk*  \-.  When  Turkey  refused  to  accept  this  condition 
War  was  d( clan d  by  Sc  rbia  and  Montene<,M-o  (.July  1S7(j). 

'I'hc  diploiiiat  ists  (.f  the  Circat  Powers  once  more  s(.-t  to 
work  and  the  aritaj:onism  betw((  n  Russia  and  Austria  now 
bi  ;:an  to  be  widely  reali/.<'d.  The  Slavonic  Halkan  j)i"oplis 
who  hail  risen  aL'ainst  Turkey  were  Hussias  kinsmen,  and 
she  could  not  r(  fjard  their  subju^jafion  with  indifference. 
Kussia  arni'  (1  the  Serbians  and  pro\idcd  them  with  ollieers 
and  ni<  n,  moni  y.  and  hospital  supjilies,  and  Russian  doctors 
and  ladies  went  to  Si  rbia  and  Monten<  i_'r.»  to  render  aid. 

I'Vom  .\ustria  llim;,'ary,  unfort unat <  I\-,  the  oppressed 
.Sja\-  jKoples  of  till'  Halkans  did  not  receixc  the  same  sym- 
pathy as  from  the  Russians,  and  esjx cialK'  in  Ilun^arv, 
sad  to  relate.  ther<-  w.is  far  more  sympathy  for  the  'I'urks 
than  for  the  iiisur^(  iit  s.  'J'he  ( i(»\(  rnment  assimied  a 
waiting  attitude,  and  the  Press  uri,'ed  t  hat  Aust  i-i.a  should 
i,(iuj,ij  JJosiiia  on  the  eiillapsc  ol"  the  Tmkish  rule,  which 
now  s(  .  iiied  iiiimuienl . 

Tie  aiiti  Prussian  p<iliey  of  the  Prune  Muuster  JJeust  (a 
Sa\"iM  was  replaced  iu  I  .s,?  I  by  a  iVieudK  po|ic\-  luider 
the  lead'  r^hip  ot'  .\ntlrassy  (a  Huiiu'anan).  .'lud  l-"raneis 
.b  'vej.h's  meet  ui;i  \\  it  h  \N  illiaiu  I  and  Alexander  II  in  1{<  ilm 

Hi    1  ^7■J    hail    II  d    to   t  he    ""  .Mhaliee   of  the   Three    I'lmpi  rors 

*      I  |]>  sc    r  \  .  til  s    iia\  e    1)1.  II    (le-erilii  il    \i\     I'lli      \\  in  i    took    [.ai  I   ill  (tic 

I'  '."It.   .1.    \.i/''ss,    Hul;..'ari;k's   furiiii"   I    |"m|.   m    ||i<    hi-ti)iical  rM'\il 

I    u.hr   11, r    \  nkr. 


Turkey  and  the  Balkan  Provinces      159 

and  marked  a  new  epoeli  in  Austria's  policy,  which  was 
thenceforward  supported  by  (ierniany.  Austria's  rchi- 
tions  with  Russiii  also  reniainctl  conhal  Tor  many  years. 

At  a  meetin<^  at  Ileichstadt  on  July  8,  1K7(>,  between 
Alexander  II  and  Francis  Joseph  and  their  Prime  Ministers 
Gortchakoff  and  Andrassy,  they  arrreed  not  lo  intervene 
and  to  consult  one  another  as  matters  pro<fressed.  If  war 
sliould  ensue  between  Russia  and  Turkey,  Austria  under- 
took to  remain  neutral,  and  in  return  Russia  consented  to 
])i'rmit  Austria  to  occuj)y  Rosnia  and  Herzegovina  in  order 
to  preserve  order  on  her  frontiers.  This  arranfr(>ment  was 
confirmed  in  1877,  but  was  never  carried  into  effect. 

Serbia  and  Montenegro's  war  against  Turkey,  which 
lasted  nearly  four  months,  underwent  many  fluctuations, 
The  Russian  (ieneral  Tchernaycff,  who  had  entered  Serl)ian 
service,  commanded  the  Serbian  main  army  and  was  largely 
instrumental  in  securing  the  ascendancy  of  the  Serbian 
arms  in  the  early  stages  ;  yet,  in  spite  of  their  bravery,  both 
the  Serbians  and  the  Montenegrins  suffered  many  defeats, 
and  in  the  end  they  were  forced  to  sue  for  help  from  Russia. 
Thereupon  General  Ignatieff,  imder  threat  of  Russia's 
armed  intervention,  obtained  an  armistice,  and  a  conference 
of  the  Great  Powers  took  place  at  Constantinople. 

The  reforms  and  concessions  proposed  at  this  conference, 
as  well  as  a  later  suggestion  by  the  Powers,  were  declined  Ijy 
Turkey.  Thereupon  the  Russian  Premier  Gcn-tchakoff,  as 
the  Powers  seemed  disinclined  for  joint  action  against 
Turkey,  in  order  to  enforce  the  demands  ]n*esented  to  her, 
declared  that  since  the  Turkish  Government  had  declined 
all  suggestions  for  the  amelioration  of  the  distiu'bed  con- 
ditions among  the  Balkan  peoj^les,  which  inconvenienced  the 
neighbouring  States,  the  Tsar  had  no  alternative  but  to  inter- 
vene by  force  of  arms.  This  gave  rise  to  the  Russo-Turkish 
War  of  1877,  in  which  Russia  had  Rumania,  Montenegro, 
and  Serbia  for  her  Allies  and  was  assisted  l)y  Bulgarian 
bands  of  volunteers.  After  severe  defeats  on  l)oth  sides 
the  Russians  won  the  decisive  battles  of  Kars,  Plevna,  and 
Chipka,  took  Adrianople,  and  marched  on  Constantinople. 


ir>()        Hkiohk,   I)rKiN(;,   and  Aftkh   1!»1  1 

Tilt-  >itiltan  iiiiw  --IK  il  lor  jxaci-.  an  ariiii'^lKr  lolluw  i  tl, 
and  |)«  ace  jinlimiiiaiii  s  wtir  si^'iit  d  at  Adiianoplc.  'V\\v 
Russian  suc<(  NS{  s  <,'a\t  rise  to  anxiity  in  1mil.'1;iii(1.  who 
had  laiL.'''  intritsts  to  protect  in  the  Turkish  l-!ni|>u-t' 
(K;jy|>t.  «  tr.),  and  to  sat(  t,'Uard  th<  s«-  she  sint  a  th  t  t  to  thr 
Dartlancllt  s  to  support  the  'I'uiks  and  drilaicd  that  she 
could  not  cons(  nt  to  a  s(  paratc  si  ttit  int  nt  Ik  twccn  IJussia 
and  'i'urk(  \\  hut  would  uisi^t  on  tin-  t«  rnis  of  |»»acc  ht  inj,' 
set  t  Ird  hy  a  l-!uiop(  an  C'onu'i'ess.  w  hen  ui  Aust  ria  concui  ii  tl. 
\N  Inn  tluicupon  'l'urkr\-  Ixcainc  less  tractable  o\<r  t  he 
p(  aee  ne>jotiat  lolls,  the  Russians  threattiied  ti)  occupy 
(  ' -nst  ant  iiiopje,  and  shit'ttd  theii-  hea(l(|uaiteis  to  San 
St'  lano.  near  li\.  w  In  ii  the  peace  was  siijncd  on  Mafch  li, 
]  .sT.s.  H\  t  he  1 1  inis  of  t  his  pc  ace  Huluaria  w  as  to  recei\c  an 
out  It  t  on  t  he  .1-!l:<  an  and  Itecoinc  a  pi-inci|)ality.  t  rihutary  to 
Turkt  \'.  hut  rernaiiun^j  for  the  time  heniij  a  Russian  ))r<)- 
teet'irat'-;  whilst  Runiaiua,  SeiKia.  and  MontencLTro  were 
to  I. .  (Mill.-  ind.  p(  iidi  nt .  Hosrua  and  Iler/i  L:o\ina  were 
still  t'l  Ih  loiiL'  ^"  Turk'  y,  hut  the  reforms  \ot(  ti  at  the  tirst 
c' inf<  rt  iiei  at  (oust  ant  iuoph-  \v<  I'e  to  he  carried  out. 
Russia  ricei\.  d  Kars.  l{af .  iimi.  and  Haja/.id  in  Asia  Minor. 
This  fr(at\.  which  di  pii\i(l  'i'lirkt  y  of  the  rank  of  a 
(tri  at  l'iiw<  I.  [>}  the  ad\anta'je  of  Russia,  creat-d  dissafis- 
f.ieth.n  in  l''-iijl,ind  and  .Vustii.i.  l-.n-jland  ariiiid  and  was 
on  th'  \ .  rL''  ol  ^om^,'  to  war  with  Russia,  .\usfria.  which 
c"ul(l  not  ac<|ui<  se.  in  t  he  new  dist  rihut  ion  of  po\v(  r  amon^' 
tl:r  Ralkan  p''ipl<^.  ri\ert<d  to  tin  plan  of  airaii^iiiL.'  a 
(  oriijri  S-,  of  t  h'  ( ii<  .tt  1*1  'W  1  Is.  hopiiiL!  to  ^t  \  t  he  peace  of 
>an  St '  t.iii"  I '  \  1  -'  (I  \  •  >  h>  1  .mU  anf  aije.  SIm  w  aiit  <  il.  ah'  iNC 
all.  tc  '.e(ii[.\  l)''MMa  ,Uid  I  l>  r/i  L'"\  Ui.i.  which  had  l"c<imc 
a  l.iet'.r  o|  t  hi  utiii'ist  importance  m  thi  |n.|ic\  of  I'laiieis 
Jos.  ph.  .althouL'h  .\u-tii:i  h.td  n.\.r  Iwid  aii\  iiL'hts  m  the^ 
direction,  and  tlie  daiiL'-  f  o|'  tuith.  r  .sl,i\  i  1. m. nts  ni  this 
|p  t  -  ro^'.  Ill  I  Ills  nion.ir(h\    "Mcjlit    to  ha\'    Ih'U   r' .ah/.f  d. 

.\u>tM,i     ;iec(  iidinijK      !li:nl'      I-   p  I  '  s.  n  t  ;  1 1  j .  ,l  i  s     \<>     Ih'-     ''lll'-r 

( t  r'  .it  !'■  '\s '  |■■^  with  ;i  \  I'  \s  t  • .  .1  (  .  'te.'i '  s^.  ;ii,(|  <  in  Riissi.i  a  I  so 
aiM'-Uii:  t"  th'  plan.  t'.  .iX'it  w.ir  \sith  |-',iiL'laiid.  the 
('"liLT'  ss  \\  .as  iiltim.if'  |\-  'III'  III  d  at    Ri  ilili  ''ii  .Fuiie  j."',,  I.STS. 


Turkey  and  the  Balkan  Provinces     101 

Prior  to  that  date,  on  June  4,  England  had  conchidcd  a 
treaty  with  Turkey,  by  whieh  she  undertook  the  protee- 
tion  of  Turkey's  Asiatic  possessions  and  received  in  return 
Cyprus,  subject  to  an  annual  tribute.  This  treaty  was 
produced  at  tiie  Berlin  Congress,  not  as  a  subject  for  dis- 
cussion, but  as  i\  ((III  accompli. 

The  Berlin  Treaty  of  July  l.'J,  1.S78,  diuiinisjied  in  sonic 
respects  the  advantages  which  Russia  had  gained  at  San 
Stefano,  and  favoured  Austria  instead. 

Bulgaria  was  to  be  an  independent  prineij)alily,  though 
tributary  to  Turkey  ;  its  prince  was  to  be  elected  by  the 
unconstrained  will  of  the  ])e()ple,  subject  to  Turkey's 
sanction.  Bulgaria's  Governnient  was  to  be  provisionally 
entrusted  to  a  Turkish  and  a  Russian  Commissary,  and 
Consuls  appointed  by  the  Powers.  The  Russian  army  of 
occupation  was  not  to  remain  in  the  country  longer  than 
nine  months.  The  territory  previously  allotted  to  Bulgaria 
was  to  be  restricted  so  as  not  to  extend  to  the  .Egcan 
Sea. 

Russia  was  to  return  Bajazid  to  Turkey  and  was  not  to 
fortify  Batoum,  whieh  place,  together  with  Kars,  she  was 
to  retain. 

Serbia,  Montenegro,  and  Rumania  were  to  be  self- 
governing  States,  quite  independent  of  Turkey.  The 
most  imjiortant  measiu'c  passed  by  the  Congress  was  the 
mandate  granted  to  Austria,  on  the  j^roposal  of  England, 
for  the  occupation  and  adniinistraiion  of  the  provinces  of 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina.  These  countries,  however,  were 
to  remain  under  the  suzerainty  of  the  Turkish  Sultan. 

An  agreement  was  thcrcu]:)on  concluded  (1879)  between 
Austria  and  Turkey  ex]:)ressly  acknowledging  the  Sultan's 
suzerainty  in  respect  of  the  two  provinces. 

Austria  had  now  attained  her  object  ;  but  dangerous 
consequences  were  to  follow.  The  Berlin  Treaty  did  not 
definitively  solve  the  Eastern  question  :  it  merely  shelved 
it  for  the  time  being  and  averted  the  danger  of  a  big  Balkan 
war  or  a  general  Eiu'opean  conflagration. 

Austria,    having   by   the    Berlin    Treaty    of   1S78    been 

I, 


162       Before,  During,  and  Aiter  1914 

permitted,  with  Bismarck's  lielp,  to  oceuj)y  Bosnia  and 
Herzepovina.  t}unl)y  aL^^ravat(•d  the  tension  of  her  rela- 
tions with  Hussiu.  To  hahuiee  this  antaj^onism  Austria  in 
1H7U  tntrrt<l  into  a  formal  alhanee  with  Ciermaiiy,  and  with 
the  a(•c•(•^^i^»Il  of  Italy  in  ISS'J,  this  devtlojx d  into  the 
Trijtlc  AlliaiuT. 

AKxandcr  II  e<»nsidrred  he  had  been  ehcattd  by 
Andra^sy  and  Bisniarek  throufjh  the  B<rlin  Treaty,  and  in 
Russia  it  was  imi\irsally  eonsidrred  that  (iermany  had 
rohhcd  lur  of  the  fruits  of  her  victory  afjainst  Turkey. 
Alcxandt  r  n«>w  witlulrt  w  from  the  "  Alliance  of  the  Three 
iMniHrors  "  and  instead  made  overtures  to  France,  which 
culminattd  in  the  alliance  with  the  Rejtuhlic. 

K\'er  since  1H7.')  it  had  been  Francis  Joseph's  aim,  by 
pains  in  the  south  west,  to  recoup  himself  for  the  losses  in 
the  west  \'(ii(tia,  ]SC,(\.  This  was  also  the  policy  pursued 
by  the  Prime  Minister  Andrassy.  and  at  t  he  B<rlin  Conpress 
he  stro\c  \(  ry  hard  to  obtain  the  rat itieation  of  Austria's 
occupation  of  Bosnia  and  llerzepovina. 

N<  vert h«  less  Austrian  opinion  was  by  no  means  miani- 
mous  ;  the  majority  of  the  so  called  Constitutional  Party 
were  aL'ainst  Andrassys  occu)>ation  policy  for  fear  of  a 
still  larj^er  SIa\-  element  in  the  population  of  the  Fmpire  - 
and  it  was  only  with  tli<-  support  of  the  Opj)osition  jiarties 
that  t  hf  (io\  <  rnment  sueee<  (led  in  i,u\iiiLj  effect  to  the  ruling 
of  till-  Berlin  Congress. 

l'rof<sv,,r  F.  \-.  Tliall6e/,y  (a  Ilun^'ariaii ).  at  the  Con- 
sular Ae.id'  tny  in  \'i'iiua.  had  IomlT  defended  this  policy 
of  AndrassN's  .-inil  had  laid  down  tjiat  ""  the  occupation  <tf 
B">iiia  and  11-  r/.-  l'"\  ina  can  oiil\  Ix  judL.'! d  correetK'  from 
an  hi^f onc;il  pond  o|'  \  icw.  The  Hab^buri,'  d\iiasf\-  h.is 
merely  |)ursued  i-onsist(Mitly  the  natural  i  xteusiou  of  the 
monarchy  sout  h  west  ward  that  is  to  saw  the  ac(juisition 
of  th<-  ■  Adriatic  triauL'!'/  This  aim  has  been  the  central 
))rinciple  of  our  foreiLMi  polic\  siniv  the  Peace  of  Passaro 
witz"  (ITl.si,  w  h«-n  Serina  for  a  short  time  (\im'-  under 
Austrian  rule. 


Revolutionary  Movements  163 

Again  :  "  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  were  l)rought  under 
the  Habsburg  sphere  of  induenee  in  1878  iti  ])ur.suancc  nf 
a  set  tied  ])olict/.''  * 

Austria  has  long  needed  a  policy  of  concentration,  of 
internal  consolidation,  not  of  external  expansion.  Her 
statesmen  should  have  renicnibcred  the  words  of  M<;ntcs- 
quicu  :  ''  Monarchs  should  have  the  wisdom  to  keeji  their 
power  within  bounds  and  to  bear  in  mind  the  snares  of 
greatness  ;  they  should  rcmcmlxT  that  all  greatness,  all 
})owcr  is  relative,  so  that  in  seeking  to  enhance  the  out- 
ward greatness  one  nuist  not  lessen  the  inner." 

However,  Austria's  political  system  has  always  been 
based  on  historical  traditions  of  dynasty  and  annexation. 
National  unity,  which  constitutes  the  strength  of  every 
modern  State,  is  unattainable  on  account  of  the  many 
nationalities  eight  in  number  -  who  generally  regard 
one  another  with  rancour  and  suspicion,  and  in  conse- 
quence the  very  existence  of  the  Austrian  State  may  easily 
be  threatened  at  times  of  great  political  conflicts.  Its 
leaders  must  act  with  the  utmost  prudence  and  must 
cautiously  consider  the  aims  and  wishes  of  the  various 
nationalities.  The  real  bond  of  unity  in  this  abnormal 
State,  so  torn  by  strife  and  dissensions,  is  the  Crown,  the 
Habsburg  dynasty,  which  constitutes  the  virtual  guarantee 
of  the  continuance  of  the  monarchy.  How  much  more 
inijierative  is  it  not,  then,  in  view  of  the  dangerous  forces 
at  work  within  the  monarchy  and  on  its  boundaries,  that  it 
should  imdertakc  nothing  which  may  foment  disquiet  and 
dissatisfaction  ! 

Unfortunately  the  country  has  long  been  without  a  great 
statesman.  Its  prej)osterous  system  of  Government,  with 
its  mixture  of  absolutism  and  parliamentarianism,  permits 
the  most  autocratic  acts.  For  instance,  the  Foreign 
Minister  is  not  resjwnsible  to  Parliament.  Dr.  A.  Jensen, 
who  has  studied  Austria  so  tliorouglily.  has  dechircd  that 
there   "  everything  incredible   is   credil)Ie,"   and   that   the 

*  r/.Th;illnczy.  Aiistria-IIuiigary  and  the Balkau  States  (1901).  and 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  (1900). 


164       Before,  During,  and  After  1014 

"dilemma  of  Austrian  statecraft  "  is  the  natural  result  of 
the  stupidity,  elunisiness,  and  falseness  of  centuries,  and 
more  especially  <>f  the  last  decades  (in  II(ihsbur<!.  1S'.»".I). 

The  nceupatii'ii  of  IJosnia  and  Herze^'ovina  l»y  Austria 
was  deiiianded  at  the  Berlin  C'oiiLfrt  ss  hy  the  inonareh's 
rej»resiiitat  i\  (s  on  the  pita  that  it  was  tin-  <iiily  nn  ans  <if 
maintaining:  ord(  r  in  the  pro\ine(s,  from  \\hieh  l.")(). (/()() 
refu^jecN  had  Ih d  into  Austrian  territory  and  could  not  l)c 
induetd  to  rtturn  as  loiii,'  as  the  country  remained  under 
Turkish  rule.  Austria  recei\"(  tl  In  r  chief  support  from  the 
liritish  (  ii\<'Vs.  who  cousidered  that  the  occupation  would 
h'lp  to  restore  order  in  the  j)rovinc(  s. 

Althouu'h  the  Austrians  ■"came  as  friends, ""  to  (piote 
the  words  of  a  jiroelauiat  ion.  the  oeeupat  ion  w;is  vigorously 
opj)os((l  |)\-  tin-  |)opulation,  who  had  ne\(  r  been  co?isulted 
and  had  no  f((lin;:s  of  syuijiathy  towards  .Vustria.  I-'or 
niarlv  three  luonths  three  army  corps  had  to  contend 
a;j;iinst  the  population,  wjio  in  s(\(  ral  <  nLrau'emriit  s  \vere 
sup|iort<(l  l»\  Alliamans  and  s.iinc  Tuikjsh  troops.  Tjiis 
<lipIoi;ilih-  p(  ;ie(  iiiissiou  rt  minds  one  of  the  ""  jaekhootin^ 
missjdii       and  ""  dra^M>ii;ult  s  ""  ».f  Louis  \I\'.  wIk  rdiN'  the 

HuL'Uenots  Wire  to  he  Con\'ert<d  to  the  (alliohe  taitli  l)V 
musciil.ir  forci-.  Aft«  r  a  lii,'ht  at  .stolat/..  Ih  r/.t  l;o\  iua  s 
capital.  Ml  ist  ar.  was  oecu]iied,  and  alt  er  I  iu  eapt  nre  of  t  he 
town  of  'I'n  Itinje  and  t  he  fort  ress  of"  Kloj)uk,  tin-  resistance 
in  this  pro\inec  hioki  down.  In  Bosnia  many  santruinary 
<  nci  iiiiit '  rs  took  pl:ie<-  hefore  .SerajiNo  was  t;ik<  II  hy  storm 
ami  th'  Austriaiis  wtyr  ddVated  at  Tusla  and  Bihatch 
hrfiiir  th'  \  tuialh'  manaL'i  «1  to  (juijl  all  resisfanec  after 
t.akuiL'  th<-  tortn  s-(  s  i,\'  B(  hac  and   Kl.idus. 

TJifr<n]ion  tin  t  \s  <  •  pro\inc(  s  wtic  litiralK'  turixd  into 
colossal  eanijts  witji  armii  s.  furtn  ss(  s,  t)arraeks,  (  tc. 

The  '■  pneiticat  ion  "  took  a  lon^  time  to  ean-y  out. 
Ilo^tilitirs  wcrr  rontinu-d  hv  tru<rrilla  hand^.  and  when 
c.  in*crij 't  ion  wn^  intr^ducfd  in  is^^l  a  rr\-(>It  hroke  out. 
which  \vn^  fpiellr-d  1)\'  force  of  arms  m  Ihs'J.  Bo^iun 
I. ten  me  t  he  srrne  of  vet  anot  hrr  iii>risinL'  in  I  ^•'^■T. 

B\    d' L'"  es  thinj^s  hfcami-  quii  l(  r.  .ind   uinh  r  Austrian 


Annexation  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina   165 

udministration  the  provinces  made  considerable  progress. 
Order  has  been  maintained  ;  the  economic  conditions 
have  improved  ;  bridges,  roads,  and  railways  have  been 
built  ;  public  baths,  secondary  schools,  etc.,  have  been 
instituted  ;  and  religious  toleration  and  social  considera- 
tion have  been  shown  to  the  })eoi)le. 

Affection  for  Austria  there  has  been  none,  for  the  [)eople 
have  felt  op})resscd  by  the  introduction  of  conscrijition  and 
the  heavy  taxation.  Ollicially  it  has  always  been  promised 
that  the  army  of  occupation  should  be  withdrawn  as  soon 
as  the  internal  administration  was  organized  on  a  {)roper 
basis  ;   but  in  reality  the  occupation  was  clearly  permanent. 

"  The  occupied  })rovinces  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina," 
as  they  have  been  called  oflicially,  ^vere  in  the  end  uncere- 
moniously annexed  in  1908,  in  contravention  of  the  treaty 
of  1871)  with  Turkey  stipulating  the  suzerainty  of  the 
Sultan,  and  without  consulting  the  people  at  all.  With 
absolutistic  autocracy  Francis  Joseph  announced  the 
annexation  by  a  rescript  of  October  5,  1908,  to  his  Foreign 
Minister  Aehrcnthal — indisputably  a  very  remarkajjle  mode 
of  procedure  in  our  time,  reminding  one  of  Louis  XlVs 
^'UMai  c'est  ?/iOi'"  -in  which  he  declared  that,  "in  view 
of  the  high  cultural  and  ]:)olitieal  piu'pose  for  which  the 
monarchy  undertook  the  administration  of  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina  and  of  the  results,  \vhich  were  only  attained 
with  great  sacrilices,  and  realizing,  moreover,  that  a  '  clear 
and  unequivocal  legal  position  '  of  the  two  countries  is 
absolutely  essential  for  the  maintenance  of  their  con- 
stitutional institutions,  /  extend  my  sovereign  rigJils  to 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  and  decree  that  the  sueeession 
of  my  House  shall  also  embrace  these  ccnmtries."" 

To  Turkey  the  Austro-IIungarian  Government  on 
October  7  sent  a  Note  relating  to  the  annexation,  reminding 
her  of  the  tokens  of  friendship  which  the  Km])eror  had 
given,  declaring  that  law  and  order  now  reigned  in  Bosnia 
and  Herzegovina  under  the  Austrian  administration,  and 
stating  that,   as  Turkey   had  now  (after  the  revolution) 


166       Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

received  a  luw  tinveriiiiuiit  wliieh  cuukl  iiiaintaiu  order, 
the  Imperial  and  Royal  Ciuvtrninent,  to  show  its  coneilia- 
tory  sj)irit,  would  evaeiiate  the  Saiijak  of  No\  i-Hazar  and 
restore  that  provinee  to  Turkty. 

"  As  Bosnia  and  IIrr/i(^ovina,'  it  proercdetl,  "  have 
now  reached  a  high  IcVil  ol  inaterial  and  intiUcetnal  culture, 
the  moment  st-ems  oj)j>ortunf  to  eoinj)kti'  the  ;,'oo<l  work  hy 
bestowing  on  thesi-  j»rt»\inees  thr  lundits  of  the  autonomy 
and  constitutional  regime  disirrd  hy  the  population. 
Austria-Hungary  must,  howtvtr,  in  order  to  reali/.e  this 
lofty  aim,  conscientiously  regulate  the  situation  in  the  two 
j)rovinces  and  provitle  for  an  effective  guarantie  against 
the  dangers  to  which  a  continuance  of  the  regime  intro- 
duced m  IhTS  might  give  rise.  Austria- Hungary  is  thus 
confronted  with  the  iinpiratiic  ntctusiiu  of  rtl<iisi)t<],  licrsdf 
from  the  reservations  of  the  C'onstantinojile  agreement, 
and,  as  regards  liosnia  and  Her/.eg<)\  ina.  of  n;^(niiiiiti  fur 
foniur  lihtrly  of  mlitni.  (Ocsttrri  irii  I'niiani  .v/<7//  sicli 
dulur  lor  der  <^tbitttriMlitn  Xotweiuligkeil,  .^icli  dtr  in  d<r 
KoriataulittDju  It  r  Kduk  nlinn  t  ntlidlU  lu  n  I'nrht  halti'  zu 
entledigen  tnid,  xcas  linsnitn  und  die  Iltrzi^m  in<i  IntrijtL 
seine  friihere  Aktionsfniheit  w  ieder/uerlangt  ii).  ' 

The  Fc^rcign  .Minist(  r  niaih-  a  stat<  imnt  to  the  Austrian 
Delegation  for  I-'oreign  Affairs  nsjxcting  the  aiUK  \ati«»n. 
exj)laining  that  it  had  heeoriie  necessary  t'»  introduce 
constitutional  inst if ut ions  in  the  )»r<ivinces.  the  chirf  of 
which  was  a  Dn  t  wli<.s(  duty  it  was  to  exauiiiie  and 
sanction  the  Hudget.  ""  'I'liis,""  lie  said,  '"lias  placed  us 
undtr  thr  ntrts.^iljf  of  dcliiiit<I\  stttlmg  the  (jiiislion  of 
the  (iZLJU  rsliij)  i,j  li',>ni(i  and  II 1 1:.(  i!"\  ind  and  of  ii  coupiug 
ours(  h  IS  fur  th-  (l<riiiiti\c  surrrndi  r  Mfdiir  rights  in  the 
.Sanjak  of  N'i'\  i  Wa/av  uikIi  r  Art .  •_'.")  of  t  he  'I'r-  aly  nf  !{<  rlin 

hv  the  foDIUil  (DDIi  I  111  l<i)l  nf  III,  Iah  jiri'\illiiS  [Dii  iDur 
Itisslult  ilt'Aiiidi  Hi  i'.iiil iihni nj  \  i  rjiiy^ii wj^-itnissini  r  I'.hl- 
ri(  hhni'ji  )i  in  Jinnnn  hut  nns  in  *///  ZwaiiL'slaL'e  ;  (  im  tzt,  dii' 
di  fin  1 1 1: 1  I\  Inrn  n'j  di  r  I'vaai-  {\i  r  /iiu''  h"i  iu'k'  't  iii  'siiiens  und 
(l<  r  Ih  r/' <jo\  ina  ///  .iirjiitj  -.u  mhnuii  und  diis  t  iidj^ultinr 
Anj'jiliin   nnsinr  nn.s  .til.  'J."J  di  s   lliiiniii    It  rlmi^i  ■•^  Jlit  s- 


Annexation  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  1C7 

senden  Rechte  im  Sandschak  {Xovihazar)  mil  der  fornidhn 
Annexion  der  beiden  Provinzen  za  konipcnsicnn).''  * 

Russia,  suj)j)ortc'd  hy  Kiighmd,  prcjtcsted  a;,';iiiist  the 
annexation,  wliilst  Geriuany,  "  in  sliiniii<^  armour,"  cu- 
eouraged  Austria  in  this  contravention  of  treaties  and  tin- 
law  of  nations.  Tims  was  j)aid  the  del)t  of  oratitude  for 
the  agreement  of  1S78  between  the  (ierman  and  Austrian 
Emperors,  when-by,  through  the  annulment  of  Article  ~i  of 
the  Prague  Treaty,  Schleswig  delinitcly  became  a  Prussian 
province,  whilst  at  the  same  time  Austria  was  compensated 
for  the  loss  of  Wnetia  in  1H()(;, 

It  was  ollicially  intimated  that  the  annexation,  generally 
speaking,  caused  lively  satisfaction  among  the  jjcasant 
population,  but,  however  this  may  be,  it  is  a  fact  that  it 
gave  rise  to  a  liercc  agitation  among  other  classes  of  the 
community.  We  are  reminded  very  forcibly  of  Louis  XV"s 
comment  on  the  condition  of  France  in  his  time  :  "  Apres 
nous  le  dSluge."' 

Although  the  Serbian  Government  lodged  no  protest 
against  the  annexation,  protests  were  expressed  both  in  the 
Skupshtina  and  in  the  declarations  and  acts  of  the  respon- 
sible representatives  of  the  State.  Tliereu{)on,  following 
the  advice  of  the  Powers,  the  Government  closed  the 
incident  by  a  declaration  on  March  .'31 ,  1909,  to  the  Austrian 
Government  in  which  ""  Serbia  recognizes  that  her  rights 
have  not  been  affected  by  the  /"«//  accompli  regarding  Bosnia 
and  Herzegovina,  and  consequently  she  will  conform  to  the 
decision  that  the  Powers  may  take  in  conformity  with 
Article  25  of  the  Treaty  of  Berlin.  In  deference  to  the  advice 
of  the  Great  Powers,  Ser])ia  undertakes  to  renounce  hence- 
forth the  attitude  of  protest  and  opposition  which  since 
last  autimin  she  has  adopted  with  regard  to  the  annexation, 
and  undertakes,  moreover,  to  modify  the  direction  o['  her 
present  policy  with  regard  to  Austria-Hungary  and  live  in 
future  on  good  neighbourly  terms  with  that  country.*" 

The  Foreign  Minister  Aehrenthal  declared  on  the  annexa- 
*  C/.  Schulthe's  Europdischcr  Geschichtskaknder  for  1908. 


168        Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

tion  of  Bosnia  and  Hcrzcgt)vina  :  "  The  cbstntial  })urj)ose  of 
Article  '2')  of  the  Treaty  uf  IkrHn  was  to  crcatf  siabh-  cofuli- 
tioths  in  HoNiiia  and  ller/.e^'ovina  with  the  aid  of  a  i\)Wer 
strong'  enoiij^'h  to  qutll  rurij  H])ri.sin<i  {Aujlthnun<i)  on  its 
inception.  Tliis  was  the  reas(»n  wliich  k-d  the  liritish 
statesmen  IJeaconstit  Id  and  Sahshury  at  Berhn  to  offer  the 
inajuhite  of  occupation  to  Austria- Hunj^'ary." 

'J'his  mandate  thus  did  not  imply  the  ownership  of  the 
j)ro\inct  s  ;  its  aUe^rd  object,  to  qutll  trtry  uprising,  was 
exc(  edin;,'ly  vague,  and  it  might  well  he  asked  what  was 
nit  ant  by  it. 

I'or  instance,  did  the  mandate  refer  to  uprisings  against 
Turk(  y  or  against  Austria  ? 

In  rtality  the  occupied  provinces  became  a  conquered 
ri/urifri/.  Their  iidiabitants  were  vanfiuished,  and 
nourish!  (1  feelings  of  n-sentment,  not  of  friendshij),  to- 
wards the  Austrian  \ictors. 

IIow( Air,  Austria  had  received  her  mandate  to  (juell 
tvery  uprising,  and  it  mattered  little  that  the  Herlin 
ConL'iess  had  no  right  to  give  it. 

It  is  not  (  nough.  in  moulding  a  State,  to  consider  the 
suppo->it  iitus  r(  (juircmcnts  of  jtolitical  jmwer,  which, 
morro\  (  r.  may  \;iry  according  to  the  composition  of  the 
(io\<riuin  nt .  Onr  must  also  look  upon  the  matter  from 
the  j)oint  of  \  i(  \v  of  the  psyeh(»logv  of  the  j)<-o})le.  No 
absorjitioii  of  a  country  into  a  larg<r  State  without  the 
iiiiis,ftt  i,f  the  j)i  iiftU  is  in  accordance  with  the  rights  of 
nationalities.  M\  c  ly  nation  incor|iorat  ( d  b\-  force  becomes 
an  en'  iii\'  ol  flic  rnlinu'  Stat e. 

Til'-  H'  rlin  Til  afy.  as  far  as  Bosnia  and  Hei/.(  ^o\  in;i  arc 
Cone-  rn<  d.  coiist  it  iit  e(|  a  \  lolat  ion  ot'  t  lie  principle  of  nat  ion- 
nlity.  .and  the  Serbian  popiil.ition  wasd.cpK    inccnsi d. 

'I'll'-  Slavs  of  th.  Dual  M-nareliy  have  n^-t  forgotttu 
how  |or  a  lonL'  time  back  Austria  has  soni:lit  b\  iiutliods 
ol  \  io|(  nee  or  despot  isiii  to  (ii  I  ntiiii I  I-  tin  SUiv  jni.\.\< wsiiins 
'-/  Ihi  iKiitninlni  and  to  faNoui'  the  (Mrmanie  clcUH  nt  in 
e\(  r\    \va\    at   the  expense  of  the  Sl;i\s. 


Annexation  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina    169 

Thus,  in  Bohemia,  the  Czechs  became  the  victims  of  an 
Imperial  decree  (1774)  which  proehiimed  without  ceremony 
that  anlij  the  German  language  mij^lit  be  used  in  the  schools, 
in  spite  ol"  the  fact  that  Czecli  hterature  hud  long  thriven 
and  flourished. 

After  protracted  and  very  letter  struggles  between 
Czechs  and  Germans,  due  to  Austria's  policy  of  forcible 
Gcrmanization,  the  former  finally  succeeded  in  asserting 
their  cultural  independence  {rf.  pp.  21  and  *J2). 

The  same  kind  of  thing  happened  in  (ialieia,  an  entirely 
Slav  country  peopled  by  Poles  and  Huthenes.  When  the 
country  after  the  partitions  of  Poland  came  under  Austrian 
rule,  it  was  to  be  Gcnnanizi'd,  and  the  Polish  and  Ruthenian 
languages  were  no  longer  used  in  the  higher  education. 
The  Universities  at  Cracow  and  Lemberg  had  none  but 
German  professors.  After  Austria's  defeat  at  Sadcnva  in 
18GG  she  found  it  necessary  to  grant  Galicia  a  fairly 
comprehensive  autonomy,  and,  strange  to  say,  its  Polish 
representatives  in  Parliament,  the  "  Polcnklub,''  have 
long  exercised  a  large  amount  of  influence.  The  Polish 
language  ousted  the  German  at  the  Universities  as  early 
as  the  eighties  of  last  century,  after  a  Polish  jjvofessor  had 
boldly  begun  to  lecture  in  Polish,  and  Polish  culture  has 
since  then  enjo}ed  unhampered  freedom  in  Galicia. 

The  Austrian  Government  has  long  been  to  blame  for 
a  great  part  of  its  troubles  with  the  Slav  elements  in  the 
monarchy  by  looking  down  on  them  and  favouring  the 
German  element.  By  degrees  the  Germans  have  entered 
into  a  bitter  contest  with  the  Slavs  for  the  retention  of 
their  ])redominance  in  Government  and  administration, 
though  by  no  means  for  the  j^-otection  of  their  culture. 
Thus  there  is  no  longer  any  question  of  the  struggle  of 
Germanism  against  Slavism  in  the  accepted  sense  :  it  is 
merely  a  social  party  struggle,  and  the  Germans  reap 
what  they  have  sown,  seeing  that  they  mon()[)<)lized  all 
lucrative  posts  and  soiu'ces  of  income  and  have  sought  to 
oust  any  but  the  Germanic  culture,  ])retending  to  regard 
the  Slavs  as  an  inferior  element,     Gernumism  has  been 


170       Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

the  same  every wlurt-.  Il'  SlaviMii  plays  any  part  in 
Austria's  present  war,  it  is  merely  as  a  reaction  w^uinst 
Germa  n  ic  oppnasiun . 

Austria  lias  always,  in  spite  of  the  numerous  Slavs  antl 
Hungarians  in  the  monarchy,  j)ursUKl  a  German  j)oliey, 
and  would  pay  no  attention  to  national  claims.  The 
system  of  Germanizing  centralization  which  has  been  in 
operation  ever  since  the  time  of  the  ahsolutistic  and  ruth- 
less Premier  Schwarzenherg  {18iS-;52)  has  had  to  he  main- 
tained by  the  Govermnent  by  the  closest  understanding 
with  (icrmany  in  order  that  the  oj)position  of  the  other 
nati(jnalities,  especially  of  the  Hungarians,  might  be 
overcome. 

E  I'or  niany  years  back  there  has  been  a  ""  (ireat-Serbian  " 
pr<>j)aganda  with  the  object  of  miiting  all  Serbians  in  the 
H;ilkan  jieninsula.  and  Serbian  agitators  have  travelK'd  far 
aticid  to  win  over  the  IJosniaks  to  th(  ir  scIk  nie.  At  one 
time  a  union  with  Serbia  was  jield  to  be  the  proper  goal, 
but  her  moiiarehs  inspired  little  eonlidenee  and  in  the  end 
the  Prince  of  .Montenegro,  Nikita,  who  enjoyed  the  sup- 
j)ort  of  .Mexander  HI  of  Kussia.  beeaine  the  luad  of  the; 
agitat  i(»n  and  dreamt  of  beeoming  king  of  a  (ireat(  r  Serbia. 
'J'o  realize  his  ambition  it  was  necessary  to  detach  Bosnia 
and  Herzegovina  from  Aiistria.  Deputations  were  sent  to 
\'ienna  to  complain  to  the  Ivnperor  and  the  Posnian 
.Miiiistf  r  about  tluir  grievances,  and  thence  they  j)r(t- 
e«  edi  (1  to  P(  Igrade,  where  thev  wait((l  upon  the  I{\issian 
Muiister.  'I'lie  hopes  of  the  Prmee  of  .Montenegro  Were 
based  oil  the  impression  that  the  Serbian  monarchy 
\sas  nearuig  its  dissolution  and  on  the  pro\  isjonal 
natun-  of  the  relations  of  the  oeeupKd  pro\inees  with 
Aust  ria. 

Hut  tli<-  kmgdoin  of  Serbia  did  not  eolJaj)se,  and  its 
Kuig,  .Mihm,  looked  fo  .Auxtna  for  supjiort,  as  did  his  son 
.M'Xander.  This  I'd  to  tlie  a^sasslIlatioIl  of  the  latter 
and  his  eonsorl,  whereupon  the  old  and  exiled  Ptttr 
Karageorgieviteh  \sas   calleii  to    tlir    throne   in    his   stead. 


The  Great-Serbian  Movement  171 

Peter  embraced  the  opposite  poliey  and  turned  instead  to 
Russia  for  sujiport. 

Tlie  Grcat-Si-rhian  idia  is  a  national  movement  wliieli 
in  itsellis  not  to  l)e  wondered  at,  for  nationalist  aspirations 
have  made  themselves  I'elt  in  Europe  for  the  past  liundred 
years.  The  Germans,  least  of  all,  considering^  their 
Germanistic  strivinj^s,  are  entitled  to  (ind  fault  with 
Serhism.  Jiut  under  the  political  conditions  which  have 
prevailed  in  the  Balkan  j)eninsida,  antl  scein<,'  that  the 
Serbs  arc  distributed  over  different  countries  and  |)rovinces 
where  they  live  side  by  side  with  other  peoples,  the  Great- 
Serbian  proj)a<fanda  may  truly  be  described  as  fantastic, 
and  the  licry  Serbian  temperament,  which  readily  excites 
party  })assions,  is  very  liable  to  lead  to  excesses.  The 
Serb  is  highly  patriotic,  but  is  "  anarchistically  "  inclined 
and  gives  himself  uj)  heart  and  soul  to  politics  -  that  is  to 
say,  j)olitical  debates  and  party  strife.  The  party  dis- 
tribution has  usually  been  based  on  conceptions  of  foreign 
poliey — in  other  words,  Serbia's  relations  with  Austria- 
Hungary,  Russia,  and  Turkey  —or  on  the  influence  of 
leading  j)crsonalities.  This  is  the  impression  given  by  that 
very  thorough  student  Dr.  A.  Jensen  in  his  interesting 
work  Slavia  (1897).  To  his  question  whether  Russia's 
help  did  not  introduce  an  clement  of  danger,  thinking 
Serbians  have  given  the  same  answer  :  ''  Our  little  State 
cannot  be  altogether  self-dependent,  and  if  we  were  to 
refuse  the  helping  hand  of  Russia  we  should  be  thrown 
entirely  on  the  viercij  of  Austria-Hungary."'  Moreover, 
the  Russophil  leanings  of  the  Serbians  cannot  be  wondered 
at  when  it  is  remembered  that  Russia  has  ]:)Ourcd  out  rivers 
of  blood  and  roid)les  for  the  liberation  of  their  country. 

That  the  Russian  nationalists  or  Pan-Slavists  have  been 
the  cause  of  the  World  War,  as  alleged  in  Germany  and 
Austria,  cannot  be  proved,  even  if  it  l>e  admitted  that  they 
liad  some  share  in  the  Serbian  unrest.  It  has  also  been 
widely  assumed  that  the  Russian  Minister  at  Belgrade, 
von  Hart  wig,  whose  sudden  death  at  the  residence  of  the 
Austrian   INIinister    may    not    have    been    a    natural    one, 


172       Before,  Dlring,  and  After  1914 

took    an    active   shart-    in    tlic    Si  rbian   agitation    against 
Austria. 

Russia  has  always  c-onijxtttl  with  Austria  lor  the 
ascendancy  in  the  IJalkans,  mainly  with  the  ohjei-t  of 
securin;.'  ( DnstantinopK-  :  hut  it  nuist  he  said  to  lur  credit 
that  Hu-^ia  was  the  otdif  (inai  Pini.tr  'uliicli  in  Ihf  nuinc  of 
hunuiniti/  inttiitntd  d^ainsl  Ttirluy  in  ISTT  and  thus  put 
an  t  iid  to  Turkish  oppression  and  secured  the  inilcpt  ndfut 
Thiliondl  t-iislcnvf  of  se\"eral  Balkan  States. 

l{us^ia  has  looked  upon  the  (ireat-Serbian  agitation  with 
aj>i)rov;il  and  has  perhaps  goni'  so  far  as  to  suj)j)ort  it  in 
order  to  weaken  her  old  antagonist,  Austria-Hungary, 
iiut  to  s;iy  that  this  inoiiarehy  would  collapse  if  IJosnia 
and  Her/ego\  ina  were,  with  the  aid  of  Hussia,  to  hcconic 
part  of  the  .Serbian  monarchy,  and  that  the  whole  Slavonic 
World  would  come  under  Russia,  and  furtlur  that  "  the 
position  of  the  (irrmanic  race  \si>uld  become  untenable  '" 
as  has  b(  en  said  in  h  ading  eirehs  in  (iermany.  and,  in 
fact,  adduci  (i  as  a  cause  of  the  war  is  siu'ely  \ery  much 
beside  the  mark.  Ausf  ria  lIuuLrary  and  her  dependt  iieies 
had  exi>t((l  long  before  Hosnia  and  IIer/,ego\iiia  \\<rc 
.annexed,  .and  th-se  j)ro\inees  were  clearh'  not  n<( did  to 
streUL'theu  the  monarchy  :  on  the  contrary,  their  annexa- 
f  ii  in  has  b(  <  n  a  im  luiii  li>  its  salt  ti/,  a  cause  of  uiu'est  and  of 
Hiissian  interference.  This  is  so  p.alpable  that  one  could 
n"t  \S(II  nndtrsland  tlie  short-sightedness  o|"  the  Austro- 
!Innu.'anan  (ioxcmnn nt  in  iL,uioring  tliis  factor  \vhen  decid- 
ing' '![  '  in  the  anmxat  inn. 

Th'  (iifat  S«  ibian  idea,  which  nupliis  .a  union  of  all 
.S.  [biaii  pi  '  '|>1-  s.  1-,,  I  if  (I  >iiis.  .  frauL'ht  with  great  danijers  to 
t  hi  A  list  nan  St  at«  .  l"i  .:•  not  onl\  R'  >sma  and  I  b  r/.eL'o\  ina. 
but  ajsii  till  ciKistal  ri  L'i"ii  \M  st  of  them,  l)almatia.  is  ,a 
pi  I  re]  \  Si  rtio  (  iMat  lan  ci  iiuit  i\-.  and  (  loat  i;i  and  Sla\'onia  in 
t  III  n<  III  h  are  inhabit  i  (|  by  <  ^  <  nt  i.'.  !1\  tin  saim  nal  ionalit  \  . 
'I'll'  Si  I  bi  (  (  ii  lat  laii  f  111"  s  \\,  r.  a  part  of  fin  ^'y,  at  Sla\  onic 
l.imiK,  and.  .accurdinu'  tn  \.  .bene,  tjnri-  is  niilher  in 
till  mi'!'  modern  de\  t  1<  ipnn  nt  o|  thf  lamMiaee  ni>r  m  its 
old  I  r  pi:a  I  s  an\'  -harp  line  i  .f  ih  maical  ii  -n  lut  w*  i  n  t  hem. 


The  Great-Serbian  Movement  173 

No  doubt  it  is  probable  that  Serbia,  who  has  so  long 
striven  for  an  outlet  on  the  Adriatie,  hoped  tf)  attain  this 
object  through  Herzegovina  and  by  the  absorption  of 
Dahnatia  into  a  (ireat-Serl)ian  kingdom.  If  Croat iu  and 
Slavonia  were  to  be  joined  to  a  (ireater-Serbia,  Austria 
would  lose  all  her  st)uthern  Slavonic  j)r()vinc-<s ;  and,  maybe, 
this  will  be  one  of  the  results  of  Austria's  war  with  Seri)ia. 

The  aspiration  to  form  a  Cireat-Serbia,  which  has  always 
])ersisted  in  Serbia,  may  j)artly  be  attributed  t(j  the  (Ad 
wish  of  reaching  the  Adriatic  in  order  to  olitain  a  port  on 
that  seaboard  and  thus  make  the  country  conHuereiaily 
indep(Mident  of  Austria-Hungary,  who  has  always  a\ailcd 
herself  of  Serbia's  land-locked  j)osition  to  obtain  ad- 
vantages at  her  expense.  Serbia  has,  for  instance,  had  to 
j)ut  up  with  extortionate  duties  and  no  end  of  chicanery  in 
the  Customs,  and  has  been  compelled  to  obtain  nearly  all 
her  imj)orts  from  Austria-IIimgary,  although  she  might 
have  secured  far  better  and  cheaper  articles  elsewhere  ; 
moreover,  when  Serbia  asked  for  a  railway  to  the  Adriatic, 
Austria  vetoed  all  cxj^ort  from  Serbia,  who,  however,  con- 
trived to  escape  the  danger  of  total  imj)Overishment  by 
obtaining  a  market  for  her  gocxls  elsewhere  by  circuitous 
means  and  at  a])})alling  expense. 

When  at  the  beginning  of  the  war  with  Turkey  in  1012- 
13  Serbian  troops,  reinforced  by  Montenegrins,  made  for 
the  coast  of  Albania,  Austria-Hungary  immediately  tried 
to  bar  the  way,  and  when  threats  j)roved  of  no  avail  she 
entered  into  negotiations  with  Bulgaria.  It  was  Austria 
who,  with  Italy's  assistance,  enforced  the  jirincijile  of 
'"  Albania  for  the  Albanians  " — wliich  gave  rise  to  the  ill- 
starred  little  principality  of  Albania — in  order  thus  to 
frustrate  Serbia's  projects  as  regards  a  sea-port  on  the 
Adriatic. 

It  will  easily  be  understood  that  these  manoeuvres  on  the 
part  of  Austria  provoked  passionate  resentment  among  all 
Serbs  and  helped  to  fan  the  Great-Serbian  agitation. 

Professor  J.  Redlieh,  of  Vienna,  in  Die  Frirdensr^-arlr,  a 
journal  published  by  the  Xobel  Prize  winner  A.  V .  Fried, 


174       Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

gives  an  account  of  the  Scrbo- Austrian  conflict,  from  wliich 
an  extract  may  he  of  interest  : 

'*  Centuries  of  foreijjn  oppression  have  failed  to  stani]) 
out  the  Serbian  national  consciousness  ;  in  spite  of  all 
persecutions  and  sufferings  the  love  of  freedom  and  in- 
dependence sur\ived,  and  {jrew  witii  the  accession  of  the 
present  Kini,'  intt»  an  itn})tr{(ilistic  drann  of  n  (ircnttr  Strh'ui 
as  the  protector  and  mistress  of  all  Southern  Shivs.  Russia 
is  appearin;;  more  and  more  as  Serbia's  supj)ortcr  and  as  the 
promoter  of  lier  intertsts,  and  under  M.  Pashitch's  uMiidance 
the  Russophil  j)arty  ma\'  l)e  expected  to  remain  in  j)o\ver 
for  a  lonfT  time  to  come.  How  stroULT  the  new  Serbian 
national  feelint:  has  become  may  be  j^athcred  from  the 
pd.ssioudic  resentment  which  the  aimexation  of  Hosnia  and 
IIer/e^'(»\ina  e\"<iked  in  Seri)ia.  From  that  moment  the 
undisfjuised  dreams  of  eoiKjuest  of  a  (Greater  Serbia  iia\'e 
become  a  factor  iu  I''uropean  jioHtics  and  a  link  in  the  chain 
of  forces  whicli  jia\'e  ;jatiiered  aL'aiiist  Austria  and  the 
Triple  Alhance.  It  is  true  tliat  the  aimexatiou  crisis  led 
to  a  (hplomatic  di  feat  for  Serltia.  but  this  was  uiore  than 
balanced  by  the  knowl((li:<'  that  with  Russia's  warm 
frieiidsliip  she  had  also  rained  the  syuipathies  of  I'Vancc. 
Thus  there  arose  out  of  the  amiexatiou  crisis  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Ralkaii  Alliance  under  the  a'i,Ms  and  LTiiidanci' 
of  Russia. 

'■  The  Ihriislina  Ixiel:  nfTitrkeif  was  the  tirst  task.  It  will 
be  rem<  inlterc  (I  how  .Serl)ia.  siiccessfulK-  and  ^vith  com- 
parati\(|\-  small  saeiiliees,  |'i)\ii_'lit  her  wa\'  throULrh  the 
t  \M  I  Halkan  wais.  Thise  successes  weic  won  b\-  an  aruiv, 
a  I(\  \'  ot"  t  he  pi  1 1  pic  w  hi<'h,  fr<  >\\\  t  he  hiL'hest  to  the  lowest , 
ri  i,'ar(ili  --s  of  Mitf  rual  pait\'  differeiiees.  was  iiispii( d  bv  the 
same  III' a  :  th'-  flinui/ht  itWSerhld's  niissian  to  LTatlp  r  in  all 
the  .South  .SlaNMitie  pei.j.ji  s,  to  mould  them  into  oiH  nation 
with  its  place  in  t  h--  sun. 

■■  It  is  not  to  be  wondend  at  fh.at  the  Serbian  risint:  and 
t  h'-   Mii-ee\srs   of  the   Si  ibian    anii\'    in.uli     the   drepest    ini 
piissioii    on    till      \\h"le    ."^-iiith    .Sla\<'iiie    worjil,    of    whicli 
the  maii'rit\    has  tfi'in  tune  untneinnnal  inhabited  .\ustro 


The  Great-Serbian  Movement  175 

Hungarian  territory.  There  were  two  contributory  causes  : 
first,  the  dream  of  union  -originally  aeadeniie  and 
literary— in  cultured  circles  among  the  Austro-llungarian 
southern  Slavs ;  and,  secondly,  the  dissatisfaction  (jf  the 
Hungarian  southern  Slavs,  especially  of  the  Croatians, 
with  the  political  regime  in  the  country.  This  regime, 
encouraged  by  Magyar  chauvinism,  nuist,  together  with 
the  ruthless  economic  policy  of  the  Austro -Hungarian 
agrarians,  l)ear  the  main  responsibility  for  the  unfortunate 
sequel  to  Austria-Hungary's  Balkan  j)oliey.  Finally,  the 
intellectuals,  and  by  degrees,  wider  strata  of  the  Croatian 
and  Serbian  population  in  Croatia  combined  against  the 
brutal  regime  of  the  Magyars.  The  Hungarian  Govern- 
ment replied  with  fresh  reprisals,  and  by  so  doing  revealed 
within  its  own  boundaries  a  most  receptive  soil  for  a  violent 
Great-Serbian  proj)aganda.'' 

Despite  the  progress  which  accompanied  Austrian 
administration  in  the  annexed  provinces,  an  implacable 
party  fanaticism  made  itself  felt.  "  Only  on  one  jioint,*' 
says  Redlich,  "  do  the  parties  seem  to  have  achieved  unity, 
and  that  was  in  the  matter  of  the  hatred  of  the  old  regime,  of 
all  officials,  teachers,  and  economic  propagandists  sent  out 
from  the  INIonarchy  to  both  j^rovinces,  and  of  the  thousands 
of  Germans,  Magyars,  Czechs,  and  Poles  who  have  carried 
out  most  of  the  im))ortant  educational  work  of  the  last 
thirty  years.  All  of  them  were  from  the  very  th-st  day 
regarded  as  strangers  and  replaced  by  natives,  quite 
irresjK'ctive  of  whether  the  latter  ])ossesscd  the  necessary 
qualifications.  Kindness  and  consideration  proved  of  no 
avail  ;  they  were  usually  interpreted  as  weakness  and 
submission;  and  only  served  to  increase  the  dissatisfaction. 
In  the  meantime  Serbian  newspa]xn's  were  proclaiming 
loudly  that  what  the  Dual  Monarchy  had  done  for  Bosnia 
was  but  a  sham,  and  was  to  be  put  down  to  the  fear  that 
the  Dual  INIonarchy  might  collapse  on  the  death  of  the 
Emperor  Francis  Joseph  and  that  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina 
would  then  fall  to  Serbia." 

In  recent  times  a  new  agitation,  which  originated  with 


176        Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

the  Mohammedans  in  Mt>>tar,  has  been  organized  against 
Kallay,  Minister  of  Finance,  and  the  malcontents  demanded 
that  the  forcible  t'atholicization  and  the  Croatian  proj)a- 
ganda  should  cease,  that  the  taxation  should  not  })e 
enforced  witli  the  customary  severity,  etc. 

The  Hosniiin  Diet  jiresented  in  December  I'.Hl  a  memo- 
randum to  the  Austro-IIungarian  (i(tvernment  demanding 
the  riLfht  of  decision  concerning  recruiting  j)roj)osals 
and  Budget  grants,  as  the  withdrawal  of  thesr  rights  from 
the  country  had  placed  it  at  the  mercy  of  the  Austrian 
and  Iltmgarian  (iovernm«nts  and  gave  Bosnia  the  character 
of  a  colony.  These  rights,  it  was  claimed,  could  fairly  be 
(hiiianded  by  Bosnia,  sicing  that  the  expenditurt-  on  the 
Bosnian  and  Iler/egovinian  tr(»ops  had  risen  from  *J1.S,()()() 
kronen  in  1  ss;j  to  7,1(;7,7()S  kronen  in  \\W2. 

TIk-  Hungarian  Home  .Secretary,.!.  Andrassy  (son  of  the 
I'reinier  of  t  he  same  name  ).  in  a  rtceiit  ly  pul)Iished  book  on 
the  causes  of  the  War  of  I'.Ml,*  energetically  eliamj)ions 
Aust  ria  Hungary's  cause  against  .Serbia  in  view  of  the 
(ire.it  Serbian  projiaganda,  etc. 

His  reasoning  concerning  the  aimexation  of  Bosnia  and 
Her/.eL'o\ina  .and  the  .Sei-bian  (juestion  is  j)art  icularly 
illusl  i;it  i\  (•  of  the  Aust  ro-Hungarian  ollicial  j)oint  of 
\i<\s,  but  is  hardly  lik»Iy  t(»  convince  the  impartial 
observ(  r. 

■■  I  (jo  not  deiiw""  he  s.avs,  "that  w<-,  too.  have  m.-idc 
nn^tak<■•^  in  our  relations  with  S(  rbia,  but  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  it  is  not  \\c.  the  larger  .State,  who 
desire  eoiKjuesfs  to  .Serl>ia"s  detriment,  l)ut  that  it  is 
the    |(  NS(  r    Slate    which    harbours    plans    of   expansion   at 

our    e\p'  I1SI-." 

But  the  answer  to  this  is  that  the  .annex.atioii  of  Bosma 
and  Her/.eij(»vina  was  ;i  con<jUest  at  th(^  expense  of  .Serbia, 
who  thus  lost  all  hopr  of  reaelun^  the  Adriatic,  to  her 
last  int;  det  rini'^nt. 

■■  The  ann<\at  ion."  «;.ivs  Andrass\ .    ■  was  ;i  rlirect  res\ilt 

•    .1.    \ii.lr.-ivv.v.    Wrrlnil'liii   /w /-i,'  i  ""'"'"'""  .M  1  i»  i .". ). 


Tin:  Great-Serhian'  Movement  177 

of  tlic  Serbian  uoitation,  unci  was  carried  out  undt  r  j)rcs- 
sure  of  the  coiu'ietion  that  tlie  stcachly  growing  Serbian 
[)roj)a<,mn(la  eoukl  not  be  stamped  out  as  long  as  the 
/<'<,v//  stains  of  our  inonarehy  was  not  internationally 
defined. 

"  The  Bosnian  local  Government  believed  that  the 
constantly  growing  South  Slav  agitation  would  be  promoted 
by  the  false  notion  that  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  were  only 
temijorarily  placed  under  our  charge  and  that  the  European 
mandate  would  soon  be  revoked,  since  it  had  ceased  to 
have  any  j)uri)ose. 

"  The  annexation  decree  was  intended  to  put  an  end  to 
these  notions  and  agitations."' 

Andrassy  shows,  however,  that  this  Government  measure 
brought  about  the  ojipositc  to  what  was  intended  by  it. 
This  decision  aggravated  the  resentment.  The  whole 
Serbian  nation,  the  oflicial  as  well  as  the  non-oflicial 
classes,  displayed  an  aggressiveness  Avhich  j)erliaps  is  only 
met  with  among  neighbours  who  live  in  peace  with  one 
another.  The  then  Foreign  Minister,  Joanovitch,  although 
the  most  peaceable  among  Serbian  politicians,  wrote  (in 
Die  Serbische  Fra^e) :  "  I  declare,  as  the  Minister  re- 
sponsible for  Serbia's  foreign  policy,  that  the  Serl)ian 
national  programme,  in  the  situation  created  during 
the  last  few  da}s,  demands  the  liberation  of  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina.  .  .  .  Here  Austria  is  a  constant  danger,  a 
constant  menace  to  us.  By  the  annexation  of  Bosnia 
and  Herzegovina,  by  the  closing  of  the  Adriatic  to  Serbia, 
})y  preventing  a  imion  between  us  and  Montenegro, 
Austria-Hungary  forces  upon  us  and  all  Serbians  in  a 
more  or  less  distant  future  a  titanic  struggle,  a  fight  of 
life  and  death."" 

Andrassy  admits  that  "'  there  are  and  may  be  differences 
of  opinion  as  to  the  expediency  of  the  annexation,  and  the 
formalities  employed  in  this  measure  may  also  be  open 
to  discussion."'  Yet  he  emphasizes  that  "  the  direct 
purpose  of  our  occui)ation  was  once  and  for  all  to  destroy 
Serbian   Jiopes  of  expansion  iveshvard."     He  disputes  the 

M 


178        Befork,  Dlrinc;,  and  After  1914 

cunt tnt ion  of  tlir  Serbian  Forti;,'n  Minister  that  Auslria- 
llungarys  mandate  of  oceupation  hatl  come  to  an  end. 
and  maintains  that  it  was  not  sul)ject  to  an\'  limitations 
uhate\er.  As  n  sort  of  |)ro(»f  in  this  re  sjk ct  lie  n-ealls  what 
the  el(K  r  Andrassv  said  on  Deeemher  1,  IST.s,  iri  tlu- 
Anstrian  DeU^ation,  in  reply  to  a  (jviestion  how  Ion;:  the 
oceuj)ation  would  continue  :  "  I'ntil  it  has  attaiiud  all  its 
ends-  that  is  to  say.  imtil  tlu-  Sinith  Slavonic  daii^<  r  has 
disaj)p(  ared,  luitil  the  Western  Balkans  have'  reache-d  a 
more  settleel  state-  and  tlie-  Ivistern  (juestie)n  has  ceased  to 
exi^t."' 

It  was  Austria's  annexation  of  Bosnia  and  IIerze'^M)\ina, 
anel  the-  \iolation  of  the  law  of  nations  and  the  will  of  the' 
[)eoj)le  whie-h  it  involved,  that  hrouuht  into  Ixin^'  the 
vcIhuk  nt  a^'itation  amoni,'  the  Serbians  there  and  in 
Serbia.  In  sod*  tics  and  in  the  Pi'e^s  hati'cd  and  incifr- 
ment  to  rcNeiiL'e  were  the  order  of  the  day.  Foremost 
amont:  tlusc  societies  wa>  the  Xiir(/(liui  Odluitna  of 
Helfrade,  founded  as  a  result  of  the  po|>ular  :iL'ilatii>n 
which  sur^^ed  »ip  in  Serbia  on  the  aiuuxation  of  the  two 
provinces,  and  which  had  for  its  object  the  st  i-(  ii-t  li<  iiiuLT 
of  the  national  sent  inn  lit ,  the  fi>rniatioii  of  \<ihnit((r 
corps,  the  eham])i<inin;4  of  the  defence  mo\(inent  aiiiMii|^r 
the  Serbian  |)eo]>le.  etc.  Tlu'  soe'iety  had  four  depart  menis  : 
educational  woik,  physical  trainin;:.  ccononiies,  and 
foreiL'n  affairs,  \\ifh  it  wei-e  associated  s(  \  (  i-;d  othir 
societ  ies  wit  li  a  like  aim. 

AiiionL:  tbini  was  the  Diisan  Silni  a  "'Sok'!!""  or 
trainin;.'  ehili.  Acei  iidiii;^  fo  a  sp(  i  ch  of  its  pitsidiiit,  in 
January  IHll.  th--  ■".Suk"!""  ni<  >\i  ni<  nf .  which  ai-ose 
through  th<-  stni;_':_||c  ii'jtii/i\l  (ii  n/Kin  i  -  in.  is  a  pur(l\ 
.Slavonii'  inst  it  ut  inn  w  hii-h  has  \\,v  its  aim  t  > »  unit  >  .  I '  >  iiispiii-. 
and,  b\'  <(lucational  and  ph\  sical  fianiuiL.'.  t"  pit  paic  \<>v 
the  conti  st   with  the  cncniif  s  of  .Sla\  ism. 

Amoncst  the  pi<inounc<  mcnts  in  the  .S(  rbian  l'i(  ss  1  niay 
iD'iition  artichs  in  the  /*<7////.(/  and  Mdli  Juiinitil  of 
()(  t(.b(  r  h,    I'.tio.  diseussitiLf  the  annexation  of  Bosnia  and 


Assassination  of  Francis  Ferdinand    170 

Herzegovina.  These  articles  contained  vehement  out- 
bursts against  Austria-Hungary,  and  warned  Europe  that 
the  Serbian  people  were  intent  on  revenge.  Tlie  PoUtiku 
on  A|)ril  18,  1911,  said  :  "  By  the  incorporation  of  IJosnia 
and  Herzegovina  all  chances  of  friendship  between  Serl)ia 
and  Austria-Hungary  have  been  destroyed  for  ever. 
That  every  Serbian  knows." 

Piemonl  on  October  8,  1913,  said  :  ''  It  is  five  years 
to-day  since,  by  an  Imperial  decree,  the  Habsburg  sceptre 
was  extended  over  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina.  The  peoj)le 
vow  vengeance.  Serbian  soldiers  vow  this  day  that  they 
will  deal  with  the  '  second  Turkey  '  as  they  have,  with 
God's  help,  dealt  with  Balkan  Turkey."  * 

Even  though  we  must  deeply  deplore  the  assassination 
of  the  Austrian  Heir  Aj)parent,  Francis  Ferdinand,  and  his 
consort  on  June  28,  1914,  carried  out  by  the  young  Bosnian 
student  Princip  pursuant  to  the  plans  of  a  Seri)ian  con- 
spiracy, we  should  lack  a  true  understanding  of  national 
psychology  were  we  not  to  admit  that  the  conspiracy  was 
in  a  certain  measure  brought  about  by  Austria  and  that  it 
was  founded  on  political  and  patriotic  motives.     In  times 
of  popular  unrest  and  clamour  we  must  reckon  with  young 
hot-heads  whose  acts  follow  too  closely  on  the  imjnilse  of 
the   moment  but   may   nevertheless   be  an  expression   of 
universal  and  righteous  resentment.     Unhap])ily,  in  this 
case,    entirely    innocent    people,     whose    nuu-der    served 
no  end  whatever,  became  the  chance  victims  of  circum- 
stance. 

The  criminal  psychology  of  our  time  demands  a  dis- 
passionate scrutiny  of  all  conceivable  motives  for  crime, 
and  often  takes  extenuating  circumstances  into  account 
in  passing  judgment.  This  science  docs  not,  like  the 
criminal  judge,  look  to  the  ])cnal  code  alone  for  guidance. 
and  docs  not  merely  sec  in  the  accused  jierson  a  jtotential 
criminal ;  it  studies  him  as  a  human  being,  seeking  to  elicit 
his  inherited  qualities,  his  temperament  and  character, 
*  Cf.  Austria-Hungary's  lied  Book,  Xo.  19. 


l.so        Bkfoue,  During,  and  After  191i 

and,  last  hut  nut  least,  tlif  cnvirt)ninent  in  ^vhil•h  he  luis 
livt'd,  tlic  rxti  rnal  circunistanccs,  viv. 

It  st'iins  to  \i\v  ividi  nt  that  Princij)  was  not  a  \ul^'ar 
nuirdinr.  hut  an  o\  iistrun;:.  nervous  voiuil;  man  who, 
tot,'eth(r  with  the  other  assailant,  C'ahrino\  ie,  hail  heen 
hypnoti/Kl  into  eonitnittini,'  an  aet  ol'  I'olly  hy  the-  jiassioiuite 
hatrnl  of  Austria. 

The  lirl^radc  newspaper  ihilkan  said  of  the  two 
assassins  :  ♦  '"  ("ahrinoxie,  a  compositor,  was  full  of 
anarehieal  idi  as  and  known  to  be  a  restless  spirit.  I'rineip 
was  a  (jui(t,  nir\'ous,  docile  youn^  man,  inclined  to 
SoeialiNm.  Both  had  <:rown  up  in  Serajivo  and  were  since 
childhood  united  hy  the  honils  of  the  closest  friendship.*' 
Another  Bcl;4ra(le  paper,  the  Mali  Jaunuil,  said  of  the 
nnirder  of  the  Heir  Ap])arent  :  "  He  was  assassinated  i)y 
a  Ixiy  whom  ^'rief  over  the  oppressed  and  stilled  country 
f)f  his  hirth  had  dri\'cn  to  hystc  ria." 

Austria-Hun^jary  d(li\(.rfd  on  July  'l'.\  the  notorious  and 
fat(  ful  Note  to  Serbia,  demandiii!,'  a  reply  witlun  forty- 
ei^dit  hours.  'J'his  Note  eonslit ijtcd  an  aeeusation  atrainst 
Serbia  of  complicity  in  the  conspiracy  which  a  number  of 
Bosniaks  had  foruK d  a;,'ainst  the-  Austrian  Ht  ir  Appartnt. 
and  opened  with  a  remindir  of  tin-  Serbian  (iovernment "s 
declaration  of  March  .'51,  r,M)'.».  r(  L,'ardin<,'  the  abandonment 
of  all  opposition  to  the  anuexat  ion  of  Bosnia  and  lb  r/e;,'o- 
\iiui.  'J"li<  n  folloucd  the  iiidietmrnt  :  '"  The  history  of 
recent  \<ars,  and  more  (.sjxcially  tin-  j)ainfid  events  of 
June  'JS,  have  sIdwii  thf  existeiiei-  in  .S(  ibia  of  a  snJnirsivt' 
tnoict/itiit  \\itli  fix-  obj' el  (>l(l(  l<i(  hiiiii  ctrliiiii  jxirls  of  flir 
Itrrilori/  r//  .{ n\lriii  II n n'jiiri/  from  the  Moiiareli\ .  'I'lie 
.Serbian  (io\  I  iiuiK  lit ,  far  from  eairyinjj  out  tin-  foiiual 
undert  akuiL's  eontaund  m  t!;  dielaratiou  of  March  .'U . 
I'.M)'.',  has  (lone  notliin^:  \>>  n  pri  ->  this  iiio\  i  iin  nt .  It  has 
Jiermitfid  the  eiiiiiUial  Inaehniat  hWis  o|'  \arii>us  soeii  t  i(  s 
and  jissoeiat  loiis  diirctid  aijainst  tl.i  Mouaicliw  and  has 
tolerated  imre  st  ram<  d  lan;_'iiaL''  on  tin  part  >>\'  tin  Bii  ss, 
•   ( f    \iistii.i  Iltii  f^irj  s  lull  Jin,,},,  sii].|,l.  l>,  !>.  \n. 


Austria's  Note  to  Serbia  181 

the  p[Iorification  of  the  perpetrators  of  outraj^es,  Tlie  depo- 
sitions and  confessions  of  the  perpetrators  of  the  deed  of 
June  '2H  show  that  the  Serajevo  assassinations  were  planned 
in  Belf^rade,  tliat  tlie  arms  and  explosives  with  whieh  tlur 
murderers  were  j)rovided  had  heen  ^iven  to  them  by 
Serbian  odicers  and  funetionaries  beloni^nnj^r  to  the  Xdvodna 
Odbruna.  .  .  .  Tlu^sc  results  of  the  investigation  impose 
on  the  Government  tlie  duty  of  putting  an  end  to  the  in- 
trigues whieh  form  a  perj)etual  menaee  to  tlie  traiKjuillity 
of  the  Monarchy," 

The  Austrian  Government  accordingly  demanded  a 
formal  assurance  that  the  Serbian  Government  condemns 
this  propaganda,  and  enjoined  that  it  should  publish  in  the 
Official  Journal  a  specified  declaration  of  ten  points. 

In  its  reply  of  July  25  to  the  Austro-IIungarian  Note,  the 
Serbian  Government  declared  that  it  "  could  not  be  held 
responsible  for  manifestations  of  a  private  character,  such 
as  articles  in  the  Press  and  the  peaceable  work  of  societies, 
manifestations  which  take  place  in  nearly  all  countries," 
etc.  ;  but  it  is  "  prepared  to  hand  over  for  trial  any  Serbian 
subject  of  whose  comj^licity  in  the  crime  at  Serajcvo  proofs 
are  forthcoming  .  .  .  condemns  and  deplores  all  pro- 
paganda which  may  ])e  directed  against  Austria-Hungary 
.  .  .  regrets,  that  according  to  the  communication  from 
tlie  Imperial  and  Royal  Government  certain  Serbian 
olhcers  and  olfieials  should  have  taken  ])art  in  the  projia- 
ganda  .  .  .  declares  that  it  will  take  the  most  rigorous 
steps  against  all  persons  guilty  of  such  acts,"'  etc.,  all  of 
which  would  be  published. 

The  Government  declared  itself  willing  to  carry  out 
eight  of  the  ten  points  of  the  Austrian  Note  which  deal  with 
the  suppression  and  punishment  of  the  agitation  directed 
against  the  Monarchy,  but  stated  that  "  it  does  not  clearly 
grasp  the  meaning  or  the  seoj)e  of  the  demand  (Clause  .5) 
that  Serbia  should  accept  the  coUahoraiion  of  the  or^^ans  of 
the  Im))erial  and  Royal  Governineut  iipun  her  oicn  Icrritori/, 
and  cannot  agree  that  (according  tt)  Clause  0)  ci^oits  or 
authorities  appointed  by  the  Imperial  and  Royal  (joverninent 


182        Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

shall  be  (.iititk'd  to  partit'ij)Hte  in  the  inquiry  into  the  j)lot  of 
June  -8,  as  this  would  he  a  violation  of  the  Constitution 
and  of  the  luxe  (f  criminal  procedure.''' 

T!u'  Serbian  (government  eonehuled  its  rej)!)'  with  the 
foliowint;  words  :  "'  If  the  Iinjxria!  and  Royal  Cioveriunent 
is  not  satistird  with  this  rej)ly,  the  Royal  Serbian  Cio\'ern- 
iii'-nt,  eiiiisidcrini,'  that  it  is  not  to  the  eorninon  interest  to 
preeijiitati-  tlu-  s«»lution  of  this  question,  will  be  ready 
always  to  aeeept  a  paeifie  understandin«;.  either  by  referrin;^ 
the  (juestion  to  the  deeision  <»f  the  International  Tribunal 
at  The  Ilanue  or  to  \]\v(,reat  /-'(/rtvr.v  whieh  took  j)art  in  the 
drawing  uj)  of  t he  dcelarat  ion  made  by  the  Serbian  Govern- 
ment on  Mareh  :i\,  l'M)[K" 

Austria-IIuntjary's  ultimatum,  seeintj  that  its  rejeetion 
bv  S(  rbia  was  clearly  exjxc'ted  and  a  warlike  solution  of  the 
e(»ntliet  was  disircd,  \sas  undoubtedly  a  jireeipitate  arul 
(jcplorablr  aet.  Its  eonscquenee  has  l)«-en  a  \Vorld  \Var 
in  wiiieh  millions  of  human  bciuLTs  have  b<(  u  kill'd  of 
mutilatrd,  and  which  has  l)ccn  carried  on  with  a  barbarity 
to  wiiieli  the  history  of  modern  times  knows  no  paralkl. 


XII  -continued 
THE  WORLD   WAR  OF   19M 

B.  The  SKuin.\N  Conflict  and  the  Gueat  Poweks  : 
Aistria's  Determination  to  Subdue  Seuhia  hy  War  : 
The  Mediation  Proposals  of  Great  ]^ritain,  France, 
AND  RiTssiA  :  Austria's  Opposition  :  Why  did  Aus- 
tria  NOT   WANT  A   CONFERENCE  ?      GERMANY   SUPPORTS 

Austria  :  War  Declarations  of  the  Powers. 

Competent  judpos  tliroiifrliout  Europe  have  agreed  that 
the  conditions  of  ])oints  5  and  G  were  unaceej)tablc  by 
any  independent  State.  Moreover,  tliey  cnuld  not  liavc 
been  complied  with  in  the  sliort  respite  of  forty-eight 
liours  allowed  for  the  reply,  as  this  would  have  necessitated 
an  aniendnient  of  the  Criminal  Code,  which  would  require 
a  longer  time. 

The  Governments  of  Russia,  France,  and  Great  Britain 
also  expressed  the  view  that  these  points  were  unaccept- 
able, and  that  Serbia's  reply  in  other  res]-)ects  tendered 
ample  satisfaction — a  fact  which  Austria-Hungary  sliould 
recognize.  Russia  also  advised  Serbia  to  concede  every 
possible  point  of  the  Austrian  Note. 

M.  Viviani,  the  French  Premier,  declared  in  a  letter  to 
Paul  Cambon  in  London  on  August  1  that  ''  France  has 
throughout,  with  England's  conciu'rcncc.  advised  modera- 
tion in  St.  Petersburg  ;  this  advice  has  been  followed. 
^L  Sazonof  has  from  the  very  beginning  exercised  jires'^nre 
on  Serbia  to  induce  her  to  acce])t  all  the  demands  of 
Austria's  ultimatum  which  were  compatible  with  h<  r 
sovereignty." 

18;3 


181        Before,  During,  and  Aiter  1'J14 

NVIitii  point  .")  of  Austria's  iliinaiuls  for  satisfaction 
from  S(.rl»ia  by  assrntin^  to  tlu-  coUaljoratit)!!  of  Austrian 
functionaries  in  the  suj»jirtssi(»n  of  tlu-  suljvirsivc  inovt- 
nicnt  in  Srrl»ia.  was  oj)j>os( d  l(\-  tlu-  Powers,  wiio  considcrid 
it  to  ^•on-^tifut^•  an  rncroaclmunt  upon  the  sovrrtiu'n  ri^^lits 
of  the  Kin:,Hloin,  and  tlu-  Russian  I\>rti^Mi  Minister  ealK d 
attenti(»n  to  this.  Count  Rerclitohl  instructtd  the  Austrian 
ainhassador  to  inform  Sa/.onof  "in  stric-t  conlidiiice  " 
that  the  insistence  on  this  j)oint  '"  was  thie  altoLrethiT  to 
practical  considerations  and  was  hy  no  mians  intc-ndcd  to 
rai'<e  the  (piestion  of  Serbia's  so\-erei;:nty.  In  sj)eaking  ot 
'  collaboration  '  in  point  .>  we  have  in  our  mind  the  iiistitu- 
ti(»n  of  a  .vf <-;•</  '  burKUi  dt  suriii-  '  in  Bel^ratle  which  would 
operate  in  the  same  way  as  the  analo^rous  Russian  instit\i- 
tions  in  Paris,  and  would  collaborate  \\ith  the  Scrhiiin 
])(ilict   (uul  (uhnirtistrdtiif  (Uitlmritits." 

Sa/.oiiof  allowed  himself  to  be  jursuadtd  that  Serbia's 
sovereignty  \sas  not  thii  at*  iied,  but  (hclared  that  the 
( iiforct-m«  nt  ol'this  point  would  place  Seibia  in  a  position 
of  'i(l.-^stihli!i'   Id   .ilislrid. 

Austria's  h',il  linnh-  and  Serbia's  Jilii(  litidj,  show  the 
points  of  \  i(  \s  o|  the  two  .States  respictiiiLf  the  Serl)ian 
agitation  aL'.'dust  Austria.  In  spite  of  all  tin  ii'  t  ffi>its  to 
clear  theniselves,  the  .Serbian  (io\(rmnent  must  un- 
doubtedly bear  a  hea\y  burden  of  responsibility  ;  I'or 
they  had  r(  inaiiKtl  inacti\'e  (Iiuiiil:  the  picjiaL'auda  a^'Jiiust 
Austria  and  had  bet n  (^ruilty  of  sundiy  e\asions  with 
ri  LTard  to  the  t  \  id(  nee.  and  it  is  clear  that  Austria  was 
•  iitithd  to  d(  iiiand  <.'Uaraiit  et  s  [^^\•  tjie  future,  and  satis- 
taction  for  this  t .  ilerat  i.iii  <il'  the  au'itation. 

The  Austrian  Note  of  .Iiil\-  'j;<.  howi  n(  r,  not  oiiK  a^ki  d 
loj-  ^juaraiit'f  ,  and  sat  i-^faet  ion.  but  si  i-med  calculatid  to 
pu-ft  till  ((i)ifh(t  tn  (I  jinint  from  which  thei(  could  be  no 
I'eidiii;^  except    hi/  i,,ri<    <if  iiriii-'. 

In    a    Nott    ot    .luly  'J.'{    to   the    Austrian   anilia>sa<lor   in 

I.-'iidoii    Count     licrchtold    statid    that     .\ustiia    iniild    /ml 

'■<']■<  \      h'  r     diinalid.     t<(     iii  H'lt  m  1 1  "/i     (IikI    i  nni  jnnni  i  ^(  .     a- 

'l.'\      i.iil\     (■■•iitaih'd     \\liat      wa       ,:iiliril.     .■lud      tlKtt      111- 


The  Serbian  Conflict  185 

Monarchy,   in   view  of  its  economic  interests,   could   not 
rini  the  risk  of  Serbia  prolon^^in^  the  crisis  indclinitily. 

The  Austrian  (ioverninent,  on  a  i)ro])osal  for  nie(hali(jn 
l)ein^  put  forward  by  Sir  Kdward  Grey,  insisted  tliat  tlie 
question  at  issue  was  one  for  settlement  between  Serbia 
and  Austria  alone  althoufrh  knowinf^  full  well  Russia's 
attitude  and  must,  therefore,  ha\'e  foreseen  that  a 
universal  war  would  follow. 

When  Sir  Kdward  (irey  (July  21)  objected  to  Austria's 
appending'  to  the  Serbian  Note  an  ultimatum  allowing 
but  forty-eight  hours  for  a  re|)ly,  on  the  groimd  that  it 
woidd  be  time  enough  to  present  an  ultimatum  after  the 
reply  had  l)ecn  received  if  it  were  found  unsatisfactory, 
Count  Berchtold  explained  that  it  was  "  not  a  formal 
ultimatum,"  only  "  cine  bcfristete  Demarche  "'  (a  dhnarclic 
■with  a  time-limit),  which,  if  it  were  not  accepted  within 
tlic  time  given,  would  "  for  the  time  being  only  be  followed 
by  the  rupture  of  diplomatic  relations  and  the  beginning 
of  the  necessary  military  })rej:)arations  "'  —a  diplomatic 
je^L  dc  motfi,  in  other  words.  That  the  Note  bore  the 
character  of  an  ultimatum  was  evident  horn,  the  added 
observation  that  Austria  was  ^'  irrcvocahUj  resolved'"  to 
enforce  Iter  demands. 

Austria's  ambassador  in  Belgrade,  Baron  Giesl,  sum- 
marized in  a  telegram  of  July  "21  Serbia's  recent  attitude 
and  referred  to  it  as  '"  nationalistic  madness,"  at  the 
same  time  dwelling  on  Serbia's  hatred,  nay.  her  contempt, 
for  Austria.  As  this  telegrani  was  dispatched  the  day 
before  Austria's  Note  to  Serbia  it  will  be  seen  that  it  could 
not  have  formed  a  basis  for  the  latter.  Moreover,  the 
telegram  contains  nothing  beyond  general  rellections  on 
the  inextirpable  enmity  of  the  Serbians,  and  Baron  Gicsl 
merely  remarks  that  "  a  settlement  with  Serbia,  a  icar 
to  safeguard  the  Monarchy's  position  as  a  (ireat  Power, 
nay,  its  very  existence,  cdunoi  in  the  lonil  run  he  avoided." 
''  The  Serbian  Crown  Prince  Alexander  telegra])lied  on 
July  in  to  the  Tsar  ae<]uainting  him  witli  the  Austrian 
Xote  and  the  unacceptable  points,  and   pointing  out    the 


18G        Before,  During,  and  Ai-ter  1914 

probability  that  Scrliia  \voiild  Ix-  attacked.  "  We  are 
imabk-  to  defi  lul  oursi-lves,"  he  wrote,  '*  and  we  l)eseceh 
your  Majrsty  to  eoiiie  to  our  assistance  as  quickly  as 
possible." 

The  Kinperor  Nicholas  auswired  on  July  'J7  that  he 
hoped  th«'  Serbian  (ioverrunent  would  omit  nothing  which 
ini<,'ht  ob\iate  a  war,  as  long  as  Ser})ia's  di;,Mnty  was  n<»t 
at  staki-,  and  that  he  was  niakinjj  efforts  in  the  same 
direetiiin.  ""  If.  in  spite  of  our  most  earnest  wish,  we  fail 
herein,  your  Hoyal  Ili^zhness  may  rest  assund  that  Russia 
will  tittdrr  )in  rirritmstdnccs  rtmaifi  indijftrcnt  to  Scrl>i(i\s' 
fatf." 

^Vhen  the  Russian  Charge  d" Affaires  in  Berlin  was 
instruet((l  to  ask  the  (i<rman  (iovermnent  to  obtain  from 
the  \'i(  una  ("abim  t  on  July  *J.')  an  extension  of  the  time- 
limit  allo\\ed  in  Austiia's  ultimatum,  yon  .Tagow  did  not 
receive  him  till  late  in  the  afternoon  that  is  to  say,  when 
the  grace  was  altout  to  expire.  He  j)ointed  out  that 
.Vustrias  (■(junniniiiiiu'  to  the  Powers  took  place  sd  late 
as  to  mak''  its  effect  illusory,  seeing  that  ///c  llnif  did  imt 
pirnill  t/it //}  In  liihr  coi^nizdncc  of  the  alleged  facts,  for 
\\hieh  reason  he  must  ask  for  an  extension  of  time.  Ilerr 
\on  .Iai:ow  atiswried  that  he  considered  that  all  tluse 
ni' .isuff  s  cam(  l"i,  Idtr.  lie  s.aid  furtlur  that  "  it  was  not 
;i  (juesfidii  (if  war,  iii«  rely  of  j)unishm<'nt  in  a  local  (jiu  s- 
tion  "'  ;  and  when  the  ambassador  complained  that  "  the 
(i- I'Mian  ( Jo\(  iiim(  lit  did  not  reali/.e  its  resj)onsibiIit  ies, 
as  in  tli<'  e\(  nf  of  hostilities  (  nsuing.  flui/  ini'jJd  iuvoht' 
till  1(^1  ('I  Ijiinji,."  JaL'ow  answered  that  he  could  not 
bi  li«\r  in   an\'   such  consi  (juetices. 

Tins  ni'thod  ..f  washinij  one's  hands  of  th<-  whole 
eontlict  and  of  thr  (|Uestii.n  <>{'  m<-diafion  |i\-  deelaring 
that  it  w.is  III'  r'  ly  a  iMatt<  r  of  •"  | mnishmint  "  in  a  local 
(|ti<stion  is  far  too  tii\ial  .'i  tria'iii'rit  of  an  appallingU' 
N' Molls  cont  uiL"  iicy.  It  shows,  in  an\'  ea^i  .  (i(rman\  s 
d' t '  I  iiiuiat  ion  to  count  >iiaiicc  no  in- diat  ion. 

On  tip   sani'   da\  tli<    Rus.ian  (  haru'i'  d'Affaircs  in  N'iiim.a 


The  Serbian  Conflict  187 

made  similar  representations  to  the  Foreign  Ofliee,  and 
pointed  out  to  the  Foreign  Secretary  that  it  was  a  breach 
of  international  courtesy  to  refer  to  the  Powers  causes 
for  comphiint  based  on  absent  documents  without  giving 
them  time  to  acquaint  themselves  with  the  circumstances. 

Wlien  the  Russian  Government  recpiested  Count  Bcreh- 
told  to  grant  an  extension  of  the  time-limit  for  Serbia's 
reply  to  the  ultimatum,  he  directed  Count  Szapary,  the 
Austrian  ambassador  in  St.  Petersburg,  to  answer  (July  25) 
that  "  rtr  cannot  allow  an  extcn.sion  of  the  iinw-Iiinit."' 
The  ambassador  was,  moreover,  instructed  to  say  that 
"  our  Note  to  the  Powers  was  not  at  all  intended  as 
an  invitation  to  them  to  give  their  respective  views,""  and 
was  merely  to  be  regarded  as  "  an  intimation  which  we 
thought  it  our  duty  to  give  as  a  matter  of  international 
courtesy." 

Thus  a  categorical  rejection  of  all  mediation. 

It  was  on  the  same  day  that  Gicsl  advised  Serbia  that 
diplomatic  relations  had  been  broken  off,  and  immediately 
left  Belgrade. 

That  the  Austrian  Government,  whilst  declining  all 
mediation  of  the  Powers  in  the  Serbian  question,  was 
aware  that  Russia,  in  case  of  war  with  Serbia,  would 
become  Serbia's  ally,  and  that  Germany  would  join 
Austria  in  the  war,  is  ]ilain  from  Count  Berehtold's  letter 
of  July  'Jo  to  Austria's  ambassador,  Count  Szai:)ary  : 
"  We  realize,  of  course,  the  possibility  that  a  cnnjlict  with 
Russia  may  develoj)  out  of  the  Serbian  dispute.  We 
could  not,  however,  allow  the  prospect  of  such  a  conflict 
to  sway  us  in  regard  to  our  attitude  towards  Serbia.  Yet 
it  is  conceival)le  that  if  Serbia  rejects  our  demands  and 
armed  intervention  on  our  part  becomes  necessary,  Russia 
may  reflect  before  slie  acts  and  may  even  be  willing  to 
restrain  the  war  party." 

Count  Berehtold  also  assumed  that  the  anil)assador 
would  have  arrived  at  a  complete  imderstanding  with  the 
German  ambassador  in  Petersburg,  '"  who  has  no  doubt 
been  instructed  by  his  Government  to  make  it  perfectly 


188       Before,  During,  and  Ait-ek  1011 

clear  to  the  Russian  Govermiuiit  that  Austria-Hungary 
in  case  of  conllict  with  Rus'iia,  uill  not  statid  dlotu." 

Austria's  dec-hiration  of  war  aL'ain^t  Serhia  was  made  on 
Julv  I'S  1»\  tlic  following:  eoiMiiiuiiieation  froiu  th(  Koreij,Mi 
Mnusti  r  :  "  'J'lie  Royal  Serl)iaii  (ioNcriuuent  not  iia\inL,' 
answrnd  in  a  satisfactory  niaiuu  r  the  Note  whicii  the 
Austro-IIuuf^Mrian  Minister  tlelivt  red  on  July  '_':{,  the 
Imperial  anil  Royal  (iovermnent  are  comjiellcd  to  .ver 
In  the  s(iftii\i(irdin<l  of  their  ri<iht.s  and  intcrtsts,  and,  with 
this  ohjcet,  t')  lidit  }'( course  to  force  of  anns.  Austria- 
IIun;.'ar\-.  therefore,  considers  herself  lunceforward  in  a 
state  (fxvar  with  Serbia.  " 

N(  \t  (lay  lit  l;;ra(le  was  homharded. 

I%\en  if  Austria  -  Ilunirarys  charges  atrainst  Serbia 
rcsprctiiiL:  the  a^'L'ri  ssive  aLfitation  against  the  Monarchy 
eatisrd  by  tli<-  (in  at  S(  rbian  j)roiiaLranda  were  well- 
foijiulfd.  this  did  imt  coiistitufc  a  sutlieient  reason  for  war 
until  attempts  had  Ixcii  made  to  settle  the  dispute  raised 
b\-  the  assassination  of  the  II(  ir  Apparent,  more  esj)ecially 
as  Serbia  a^reid  to  the  proposal  of  mediation  by  neutral 
(.rrat  Powers  and  herself  siit;mst((l  rehrrin;^  the  nuitter 
to  'I'll'    IIa;,Mie  Tribunal. 

.VeeMidinL.'  to  Austria's  lial  liooJ:.  the  Russian  niohiliza- 
tion  was  til''  cause  of  the  rupture  between  Russia  and 
( i' Tfiiaiiw 

Hut  it  -lioiild  be  notrd  that  the  Russian  Minister  of 
W'ai  had  d' dart  d  to  tin-  (iirm:in  Military  Attache  at 
,St.  1*1  1 1  i-^liuiu'  aN  '  ail\'  as  .Iiil\-  LT.  that  if'.ttislilii  crn.ssid 
till  Siihiiiii  Irnnliir  liii.s.siu  xcauld  nmhlliii  \'<>\\v  mihtaiA-  di^ 
trict^  ai.'ainst  Austria.  Thus,  when  .\ustria  d<clar<ii  war 
on  .S.  ibi.i  (in  .Iul\-  *_'S,  she  was  a\\ar(  of  Russia's  iiit'  iitioii. 
If  sc.  nis  ;i  na!\'-  nio\(  that  ('ciunt  H'rehti.ld  slmnM  n<i\\ 
;ipp<  ;d  to  till-  (idinan  (f  >\i  innii  nt  to  point  o\it  to  tie- 
|{us>ian  (i"\'rnnpiit  in  .i  iVi.n'lK  m.-iiin-  i'  "  that  this 
iiio!.ih/a1  Ion  eoir,fituti(l  a  thii  .it  .•iL'aui-t  Austiia  and  inu^t 
!■■■  .!!!  \\'i<(l  b\  "th'  nio  t  e\t'nsi\'  niihtar\-  eouiit'i 
•M-a^uii      m  Au^t  ria  .and  Ci(rmaii\."      The  ;inilia^'-adois  in 


Austria  to  Subdue  Serbia  181) 

St.  Petersburg  and  Paris  were  also  "  to  tl( dare  in  a  friendly 
manner  that  a  eontinuation  of  the  Russian  mobilization 
would  lead  to  counter-measures  in  (iermany  and  Austria, 
which  must  havx'  serious  eonseciucnees.  This  was  a  linal 
attem[)t  to  avert  a  European  war." 

It  is  of  the  highest  importanee  to  note,  however,  that 
Bcrchtold  nevertheless  declared  that  Austria  "  clcarhf 
could  not  allow  anij  interference  in  her  military  jneasures 
against  Serbia  "  / 

It  should  he  noted  that  Ciermany's  demand  that  Russia 
should  cease  mobilizing,  at  the  risk  of  otherwise  giving 
rise  to  a  German  mobilization  and  a  declaration  of  war, 
was  not  presented  until  after  Austria's  rejjresentations  of 
July  28  and  29.  Austria  must  thus  bear  a  great  part  of 
the  responsibility  for  Germany's  ultimatum  of  July  .'31, 
and  the  cause  thereof  lies  in  her  obstinate  insistence  on  a 
settlement  of  the  Serbian  conflict  by  force  of  arms  and 
her  refusal  to  accept  the  mediation  suggested  by  Sir 
Edward  Grey.  When  Count  Bcrchtold  on  July  31  stated 
his  willingness  to  accept  a  further  English  proposal  for 
mediation,  he  laid  down  two  conditions  :  that  *'  our 
military  action  against  Serbia  shall  continue,"  and  that 
the  British  Cabinet  should  prevail  u])on  the  Russian 
Government  to  ''  suspend  the  Russian  mobilization  directed 
against  us." 

Bereiitold  had,  however,  declared  the  day  before  in  a 
telegram  to  the  Austrian  ambassador  in  St.  Petersburg  that 
'"it  has  never  been  our  intention  to  u-ithdraic  any  part  (f  the 
points  of  the  .Vo/r." 

Pursuant  to  an  old  tactical  device  -which  by  now 
should  be  considered  out-of-date — Austria-Hungary  made 
out  at  the  beginning  of  the  Ser])ian  War  that  Serbia  zeas 
the  aggressor !  Bcrchtold  instructed  his  ambassador  in 
London  (July  28)  to  inform  Sir  Edward  Grey  that  Serbia 
had  ordered  a  general  mobilization  as  early  as  .'3  r.M.  on 
July  25,  whilst  her  answer  to  Austria's  Note  was  not 
delivered  until  G  p.m.,  and  that  Austria  "  had  up  till  then 
made  no  military  preparations,"  but  "  was  compelled  to 


l!K)        Before,  I)i  ring,  and  Ai-ter  1011 

do  so  hy  the  Serbian  mobilization.'     The  Austrian  ambas- 
sador in  PettTsbiirg  was  told  to  make  a  similar  statement. 

How  little  this  signified  may  be  gatlured  I'rom  the  I'aet 
that  Utrehtold  instrueted  the  Austrian  ambassador  in 
London  as  early  as  July  li-l  that  "  miidanj  })rti)ariitions" 
in  An.striit  must  trisiw  on  t.ipirutioti  i>f  ihf  tinu-liniil. 

When  Austria-Hungary  had  presented  iier  deelaration  of 
war  to  Serbia  and  immediately  began  warlike  operations 
(July  *20),  although  Russia  had  deelared  that  she  eould 
not  be  indifferent  to  the  fate  of  Seri)ia,  Russia  mobilized 
four  of  her  military  distriets.  The  Cierman  Government 
had  bctn  made  aNvare  of  the  Russian  measures  by  the 
statement  that  they  were  a  constqucnct'  of  Austria'^-  xciir 
])rt  panitions.  The  Russian  Foreign  Oiliee  issued  an 
otlieial  aeeount  of  the  ineidents  of  the  last  few  days  pre- 
ceding the  outbreak  of  war,  in  wliieh  rcfi-renee  is  nuule 
to  "  tlif  liu.ssidn  (iiiit rnrnttit'.s  :i////;/|<,'N<>\v,  In/  nu<ins  of 
dirt'ct  nt'iiiitiatiinis  nith  the  I'itrnui  Cabintt,  or,  in  accordnnct' 
ztilli  (irtiit  Britain' s  propo.sol,  by  a  eonf< n  nee  bttwccn 
(ir(at  Rritain,  Cicrmany,  France,  and  Italy,  f<>  coiitimic 
the  mgotiations  for  a  jxaccful  solution  of  th<-  eonllict. 
Rut  AustrialluiiL'ary  dccIiiK d  all  furtlur  negotiations 
with  u■^,  and  tli<-  Hcrlin  C'abini  t  refused  to  take  part  in 
the  proposed  Confertiice  between  the  Powers.  Russia 
still  p<  rsist(  (1  in  her  efforts  to  arri\c  at  a  |)eacefiil  solution, 
but  li(  r  proposal  was  declared  by  (ierniauy  to  be  unac-cept- 
able.  At  the  same  time  news  was  reet  i\"ed  of  general 
mobilization  in  Aust  ria  Himgary,  and  warlike  nuasures 
\V(  T'-  b<  iiil;  taken  on  Serbian  teri'itorv,  Hi  Igrade  Ix  ing 
sui)j(ete<l   to  a  fresh   boniliardnii  nt .""  * 

It  has  b(  <  n  unanimously  atti  sf((l  I'loni  Hritish,  Russian, 
and  Fri  neh  soin-ct  s  (H'hitt  and  Y,lln:c  Hni,ks)  that 
Au\lnit  (lid  tint  otih/  (iilirtlij  (iiiuatl  lit  r  inttiilinns  trjiiinst 
Sirl'iu  iluriu'j  Juhj,  but  s..UL.'lit,  on  the  contrary,  to  lull 
the  i'.ntcntr  Pn-Arrs  into  thr  hdii  f  \\\[\.\  no  w;irlik<-  enterprise 
was  e.  .nteiiiplated,  but  that  "a  pcuiiful  sitihinrnt  might 
*   <  f.  Hiis^i;iii  Onnifir  Ilnoh,  S<>.  77. 


Mediation  Proposals  of  Great  Powers  101 

be  anticipated,"  us  reported  on  July  Tl  l)y  M.  Duiii;iiiic, 
Freneh  ambassador  at  Vienna. 

Germany,  moreover,  assured  the;  Entente  Powers 
repeatedly  that  the  German  Government  was  not  cof^nizdul 
of  Austria's  Note  to  Serbia  before  it  was  delivered. 

Ilerr  von  Jagow,  the  German  Foreign  Minister,  deelarcd 
on  July  21,  in  answer  to  the  intpiiry  of  M.  Jules  C'ambon, 
the  Freneh  ambassador,  that  the  Berlin  Cat)inet  had  been 
ignorant  of  the  Austrian  demands  until  they  were  presented 
at  Belgrade,  but  that  he  approved  them  now  that  he  had 
seen  them.     Cambon,  iiowever,  was  struek  by  the  anxiety 
of  Jagow  and  all  his  ollieials  to  eonvincc  everybody  that 
tluy  were  unaware  of  the  eontents  of  the  Austrian  Note. 
To  a  representative  of  the  British  Legation  Jagow  also 
solemnly  deelared  that  he  had  no  })revious  knowledge  of 
the  Note.     Baron  von  Sehoen,  the  German  Ambassador 
in  Paris,  assured  the  Foreign  Olliee  (July  25)  that  Austria 
and  Germany  had  not  discussed  the  Austrian  Note  together 
and   that   the    German    Government    were    imacquainted 
with  it,  although  they  subsequently  approved  of  it.     M. 
Berthelot,  sectional  head  in  the  department,  said  to  him 
frankly  that  "  Germany's  attitude  ^vas  uncxj)lainable  by 
any    ordinary    mode    of   reasoning,    unless    that    country 
contemplated   ivar.     Was    it    likely    that    Germany    would 
range  herself  by  Austria's  side  in  such  an  adventure  icith 
Jier  eyes  shut?     Could  it   be  sup{)oscd  that  Austria   had 
taken   up   an   attitude   from   which   there   was    no   going 
back,   unless  she  had  first  weighed  nitli   Iier  Ally  all  the 
consequences   of   her   uncompromising   attitude  ?     Schocn 
once  more  affirmed  that  Germany  had  no  knowledge  of 
the  tenor  of  the  Austrian  Note.*' 

The  Entente  Powers  had  their  reason  for  doubting  this 
statement.  ]\I.  Allize,  the  Freneh  Minister  at  ^lunieh, 
advised  the  Foreign  Minister  on  July  23  that  the  Bavarian 
Premier  "had  spoken  of  the  Note,  -ailh  which  he  was 
acquainted,^'  and  the  British  ambassador  at  Vienna,  Sir 
i\Iaurice  de  Bunsen,  informed  Sir  Edward  Grey  th.at  he 
"  had  received  information  that  the  German  ambassador 


192        Before,  Diring,  and  After  1014 

U(/.N  iii(ju<iinttJ  liith  llif  tttior  of  Austrid's  uldnuiiuni  to 
Strbia  lul'orc  it  ^\a^  ilispatclutl,  ajui  tliat  In-  tcltiirophrd 
it  to  tilt  (ttrrnan  Kmjnror.  I  know  from  tlir  (krmaii 
ambassador  himself  that  he  t  iidorsc  ^  cvt  ry  hue  of  it."** 
All  Niry  stran^'c.  The  (itrmaii  Kmprror.  hkc  tht-  Bavarian 
Prrmicr,  had  httn  ac(juaintcd  with  thi-  coiitiiits  of  thr 
Note  before  it  was  (hspatehrd,  Imt  tht-  (ierman  Forei^'n 
Minister,  von  .Ja^'ow.  and  the  (ierman  aml)assa(lor,  \'on 
Schocn.  knew  nothing'  ahont  it  I  l)o(  s  that  mean  that 
the  German  Kmptror.  wlio  i^  answerahK-  for  his  actions 
to  (iod  alone,  ne((l  not  confer  with  his  Ministtrs,  or  does 
it  mean  that  \\v  was  ill  on  tlie  fateful  day  when  the  Note 
was  telei:raj)h((l  to  jiini  and  therefore  coidd  make  no 
communication  '.''  Or  is  this  merely  la  luiuic  politique?  If 
so,  it  is  unfortunate  that  it  should  ha\'e  l)e<ii  so  completely 
e\pos<(l  h\-  the  French  and  Hritisli  ambassadors.  It 
brink's  to  luind  one  of  Hisuiarek's  fa\durite  sayings  :  "'  He 
li<  s  like  a  dispatch  I  '"  Aie  the  new  Cierman  Ministers 
(  aL,'(  r  to  dis])hi\'  the  same  in^n-nuity  as  Hi-vmarek,  when 
he  fori:<(l  th'-  Frus  t(lei,'ram  ? 

.ludtiini:  from  all  re|)orts,  it  is  (  \  ideut  that  tlu  Fnteiile 
I*(»wirs  W(  re  coiiipIeteK'  taken  aback  by  Austria's  demands 
in  the  N'lte  to  .Serbia,  its  sudd(  luiess  and  its  form  of  an 
ultimatum,  just  at  a  moment  when  the  l-'rench  I'resitlent 
and  Prrmier  \\<  ri-  on  their  way  froui  St.  IVtcrsburt,'  to 
Stoeklioliii  and  could  thi  ri  fore,  in  the  short  time  o|"  forty- 
(  ii,dit  hours,  do  iiothini;  to  contribute  towards  a  jicaecful 
solution  ol'  the  coulliet. 

.Sir  Maurier  (!>■  l'>ini--(  ii.  tin-  Hritish  .ambassador  in 
\'i'  lUia.  f '  !i^'!;M)l!i  d  ou  .bi!\  L'T  fo  .Sif  Ivlward  (iicy  tli.it 
■aft'  I-  eoiil'  r[!ii„'  vsith  otii.  r  ;unb;issa(jois  of  tin'  (irraf 
Poxsir^.  fii'-  uiipi<  ---I' 'M  \\as  Ittt  (ih  Ills  iiiiinl  that  "'Ijic 
Austio  I  Iiiiii_'ariaii  Noti    was  so  drawn   up  as  t"  nitiLr  -citr 

i  Hi  :  itiliiU  . 

Wli'U   .Su'   l"-d\\aid   (',\r\  on  .Iiil\    I't;  submitted   his  ju'o 
•   (  (^   li.i.l,    V-//',,>    II. ...j..   \..  •_'!,  an.i    thr    IJrileli    Ulur   U<^<.k. 


Mediation  Proposals  of  Great  Powkus  103 

posal,  supported  l)y  France,  for  a  cnnfcrrnrr  between 
Germany,  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Italy,  with  a  view 
to  averting  hostilities  between  Austria  and  Russia,  the 
German  Foreign  Minister,  von  Jagow  (July  27),  declared 
that  this  conference,  politically  regarded,  would  be  tanta- 
mount to  a  court  of  arbitration  and  could  not  be  siniunoned 
except  at  the  request  of  the  two  States.  He  "  was  there- 
fore u?iablc  to  agree  to  the  proposal,  however  gladly  he 
would  have  co-operated  to  jirescrve  peace.'  He  declared, 
in  spite  of  Cambon's  earnest  entreaties,  that  "  he  could 
not  intervene  in  the  Austro-Serbian  conflict."  In  reply 
to  the  question  whether  he  had  undertaken  to  follow 
Austria  blindly  whatever  she  might  do,  and  whether  he 
had  acquainted  himself  with  Serbia's  answer  to  Austria, 
he  said  that  he  "  had  not  yet  had  time  "  !  * 

In  a  telegram  to  Sir  Edward  Grey  of  July  28  Sir  Edward 
Goschen,  the  British  ambassador  in  Berlin,  declared  : 
"  The  Imperial  Chancellor  wished  mc  to  tell  you  that  he 
was  most  anxious  that  Germany  should  uork  together  xvith 
England  for  the  maintenance  of  general  peace.  .  ,  . 
Fie  had  not  been  able  to  accept  your  proposal  for  a  conference 
of  representatives  of  the  Great  Powers  because  he  did  not 
think  that  it  would  be  effective.  .  .  .  His  Excellency 
said  that  he  did  not  tcish  to  discuss  the  Serbian  Note,  but 
that  Austria's  standpoint — and  in  this  he  agreed — was 
that  her  quarrel  with  Serbia  was  a  purely  Austrian  concern 
with  which  Russia  had  nothing  to  do.  .  .  .  His  last  Avords 
were  that  a  war  between  the  Great  Powers  must  be 
avoided."" 

On  the  following  day  Sir  Edward  Goschen  telegraphed 
to  Sir  Edward  Grey  :  "  The  Imperial  Chancellor  regrets 
to  say  that  the  Austro-IIungarian  Government,  to  whom 
he  had  at  once  communicated  your  opinion,  had  answered 
that  events  had  marched  too  rapidly  and  that,  therefore,  it 
was  too  late  to  act  upon  your  suggestion  that  the  Serbian 
reply  might  form  the  basis  of  continued  discussion."' 

When  Serbia  was  unable  to  submit  to  Austrian  ]wlice 

*  (/.  French  Yclloic  Book.  No.  74. 

N 


l'»l        Hkfore,  DriUNc;,  and  Aiteu  1914 

superviNion  as  (Itinandcd  by  Austria,  and  the  latter  State 
would  not  accept  Serbia's  promises  without  a  guarantee 
that  they  would  be  fultilled,  Cambon  suggested  at  Berlin 
that  an  Intcrnatiimal  Commission  should  be  appointed  to 
supervise  Serbia's  incpiiry  into  the  eonsj)iracy  a^'ainst 
Austria.  Hut  Ikrlin  and  Vienna  deemed  that  tlure  was 
no  time  to  lose.  When  Cambon's  su;j:i;estion  was  j)ut 
forward  (July  *2*J)  the  conflict  between  Ciirmany  and 
Russia  had  come  into  the  foreground. 

The  French  and  British  otlieial  documents  contain 
vehement  rei)roaches  a<;ainst  Germany  on  account  of  her 
havinfr,  throiifjh  her  ultimatum  to  Russia,  destroyed  the 
prospects  of  a  peaceful  sf)luti<)n  of  the  Serbian  conflict, 
of  which  hopes  were  held  out  when  Count  Berchtold 
I>(  rmitted  his  ambassador  in  St.  Petersburfj  to  discuss  the 
Serbian  Note  with  the  Russian  Foreign  Minister. 

\VhiIst  the  Austrian  (Government  regarded  the  Serbian 
rejily  to  the  Xiitc  as  tmsatisfaetory,  and  considered  the 
conciliatory  attitude  to  be  only  ajiparent.  the  British 
aml)assa(l<)r  in  \'ieima  intimated  that  the  .Serbian  reply 
seemed  to  furnish  the  possibility  of  a  basis  for  an  imder- 
standing.  But  with  this  Count  Berchtold  could  not  agre(\ 
.Sir  Iviward  Cirey  thereuj)on  aj)peale(l  to  the  (Jerman 
(Government  to  prevail  upon  \'ienna  either  to  regard  the 
Nt»te  from  Serbia  as  satisfactory  or  to  accept  it  as  a  basis 
for  (liseiissioii  between  the  Cabinets.  But  Berchtold  was 
(Mjually  obdurate  in  declining  the  suggestions  reeeive<l 
from  (ieriiiany,  inasmuch  as  the  ntgatixc  i)ortion  of  the 
.Serl)iaii  r<  I'In'  referred  to  the  very  point  \vliieh  would 
furnish    a    guarantee    for    the    attainment    of   the    desired 

])Urpose. 

The  (ierman  aml)assa(lor  in  \iemia,  Ilerr  \'on  Tsehirsekw 
was  represented  botji  by  the  I'reneli  and  tiie  liritish 
aml)assador  there  as  woiking  for  war.  and  tjie  ^'^eneh 
aiiibassadoi-  in  lierlin.  M.  Cambon.  repeirted  that  (i<  rmany 
was  preparing  to  "  .\iij)j)(irt  .iiistrid  in  a  part leiilarlv 
(ff(<ti\e  niann<r.'" 

W'li' II    the    (i<'?-in;ni    .'unbns^.Hlor   m    >f.    ]*«  f (  rsluii-Lr   de 


Mediation  Proposals  of  Great  Powers    105 

manded  on  July  80  that  Russia  should  cease  her  military 
preparations,  aflirmiiig  that  Austria  would  not  violate 
Serbia's  territorial  integrity,  M.  Sazonof  replied  :  "  It  is  not 
only  Serbia's  territorial  integrity  which  we  have  to  safe- 
guard, but  also  her  independence  and  her  sovereignty.  We 
cannot  permit  that  Serbia  should  become  the  vassal  of 
Austria.  By  intervening  in  Petersburg  and  declining  to 
intervene  in  Vienna,  Gcnminy  is  only  seeking  to  gain  time 
so  as  to  give  Austria  an  opportunity  of  crushing  the 
little  Serbian  kingdom  before  Russia  has  time  to  come  to 
its  assistance.  But  the  Emperor  Nicholas  is  so  anxious 
to  avert  war  that  I  am  permitted  in  his  name  to  make 
you  a  fresh  proposal  : 

"  If  Austria,  recognizing  that  her  conflict  with  Serbia 
has  assumed  the  character  of  a  question  of  European 
interest,  declares  herself  ready  to  eliminate  from  her  iilti- 
rnatum  those  points  zvhich  violate  the  principle  of  Serbian 
sovereignty,  Russia  engages  to  stop  all  military  prepara- 
tions.''' * 

According  to  the  Chancellor  Bcthmann-Hollwcg's  state- 
ment in  the  German  White  Book,  Germany  meant  to  make 
common  cause  with  Austria  in  the  Serbian  conflict.  This 
fact  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  as  it  implies  that  Germany 
approved  the  wrongs  which  Austria  inflicted  on  Serbia 
and  Austria's  refusal  to  accept  Serbia's  proposals  for  an 
amicable  settlement,  and  rejected  Serbia's  suggestion 
that  the  matter  should  be  referred  to  The  Hague  Peace 
Tribunal,  as  well  as  Sir  Edward  Grey's  proposals  for  a 
conference  of  four  Great  Powers  with  a  view  to  comj^osing 
the  differences  between  Russia  and  Austria  and  thus 
averting  war. 

Everything  goes  to  show — and  there  is  no  dearth  of 
evidence  in  the  published  official  correspondence  between 
the  Powers  prior  to  the  outbreak  of  war — that  the  German 
Government,  whilst  never  failing  to  protest  its  pacific 
intentions  and   its  wish    to    co-operate    with    tlie    other 

*  Cf.  French  Yellow  Book,  No.  103,  and  Russian  Orange  Book, 
No.  m. 


I'JC       Befork,  During;,  and  After  1914 

PuwtTs,  hy  jirocrastiiiatitm  and  cvasiDiis  placed  itself 
httwcrii  thciM  aiul  Austria  ami  hrouijlit  all  att<ni{)ts 
at  coiuiliation  to  naiiLjlit  and  encouraged,  if  it  ditl 
not  actually  exhort,  Austria  to  take  up  an  i>l)durate 
attitude. 

How  can  (tne  condone  a  policy  like  tliat  of  the  Ciernum 
I'hancelJor,  \\ho  professed  that  he  was  willing  to  co-oj)eratc 
Nsith  I'Jiu'land.  yet  did  itat  xci.sli  to  discuss  the  question  ot 
issui  :  or  an  attitutlc  sucii  as  that  of  the  (icrinan  Foreign 
.Minister,  who,  like  the  Austrian  Ciovernnunt.  found  that 
the  proposals  for  ncg(4iation  and  mediation  had  come  too 
late,  as  (Vents  had  inarched  too  rajMdly.  etc.  ?  During 
the  last  fiw  days  before  war  broke  (»ut  many  telegrams 
were  (  xehanged  between  the  Hussian.  Hritish,  and  tierman 
monarehs.  all  of  whom  besought  one  another  to  work 
for  p(  ace  and  to  d(  t'er  mobilization;  Prince  Htnry  of 
Prussia  and  King  (i(<»rge  als(t  exehangtd  telegrams  on 
the  siibj<(t.  Hut  it  all  came  to  nothing,  as  all  |)roposals 
for  mediation  or  arliit  rat  ion.  th<'  onl\'  nu  ans  of  a\t  rting 
war,  were  (1< ciintcl  by  (i(  rmany  and  Ausliia. 

It  is  :\  eni-ioiis  fact  that  the  telegram  which  the  'fsar 
dispateli((l  to  the  lMn|)eror  \\'illiam  on  July  L'".».  and 
wliifh  con\(  yi  (1  his  desire  {\,y  nrhitrdtioii.  is  tntir(ly 
onutted  iVom  the  derman  ]Vliit(  llnnh!  It  has  since 
t"<n  published  in  Russia's  (flJicidl  (iii-.itt>  and  contains 
tli(  following  passage  :  "  //  x^nuld  he  rialit  to  ^iic  ok  r  tin- 
.iii^tm  St  rhitiN  prohlnii  to  'Hie  Iluiiitc  Trihinutl.  I  trust 
in  your  wisdom  and  friendship." 

(  oiiiinf  nt  ing  lii-reon,  t  he  S orddi  hIm  h,  .  t Ihjt  no  I /o  '/.( itmiii 
pouits  out  that  this  proposal  for  arbitiation  ""  could  not 
1"  takfii  si-riousK  ///  ;  /,:r  "/  Iihsmii  -■  nnlitiui/  joi  j)ttriiti{ins 
Ui'itimt  .insfri'i  1/  iin'^iirt/.  set  uilt  that  |{u--sia  i.n  I  In- 
same  d;iy,  .July  !".».  oi'dind  tl|.-  niobili/at  Ion  ol  fliirtiiii 
army  corps  a'_'.iiiist  Ausfiia  HunLrarx  .  "  It  is  wcrths-  of 
Uoti  that  iiiobiji/at  Ions  \s  (  rt  eon-tantl\  eit((l  as  causes 
tor  w.ar,  alfliougli,  of  coins.-,  i  \  .  r\  .stat(,  mcludin:,' 
licrmany.  must  prcp.iri  to  lia\(  rc<oinsc  to  anus  :chf  n 
iu  jiitidtuiu^  firoir  of  no  ox  nil. 


Mediation  Proposals  of  Great  Powkus    107 

In  his  work  H'cr  hat  din  Kric^  verbrochen  ?  Andrassy 
deals  exhaustively  with  Russia's  Balkan  poliey  and 
endeavours  to  show  that  it  is  Russia  who  is  mainly  to 
blame  for  the  Great-Serbian  agitation,  and  that  ''  Russian 
aggressiveness  and  pretensions  in  the  East  were  the  priniuni 
mobile  and  the  real  cause  of  the  World  War,  and  that  this 
aggressive  jioliey  was  only  rendered  possible  by  her  Allies." 

Austria-Hungary's  share  in  bringing  about  the  war  ean, 
says  Andrassy,  even  in  the  eyes  of  the  Entente,  *'  only 
consist  in  our  wish  to  prosecute  our  legitimate  aim,  to 
safeguard  our  existence  and  our  most  vital  interests  by 
7nore  radical  nwans  than  the  Entente  considered  suitable 
or  cared  to  endorse  " — that  is  to  say,  in  (^tlier  words, 
castigation  by  force  of  arms  in  a  localized  rear.  For  the 
conflict  with  Serbia,  he  says,  was  "  a  matter  which  did 
not  concern  anyone  else  in  the  least."  Andrassy  goes  on 
to  say  that  whilst  the  acts  (Daten)  of  the  Entente  show- 
that  it  made  no  tangible  offer  in  the  interest  of  the  world's 
peace,  these  same  acts  show  that  we,  the  offended,  tlie 
threatened  party,  agreed  to  great  sacrifices  in  the  cause 
of  peace."  He  also  praises  Germany  for  having  "  honour- 
ably supported  us  in  our  endeavour  to  solve  the  Serbian 
question  tvitliout  European  coviplicatioyis  and  with  such 
guarantees  as  would  obviate  any  renewal  of  the  agitations 
which  have  been  carried  on  up  to  the  present. "" 

It  is  surprising  to  note  that  Andrassy  denies  the  Entente 
Powers  the  merit  of  having  sought  to  settle  the  Serbian 
dispute  in  the  interests  of  peace,  whereas  they  demon- 
strably made  the  most  strenuous  efforts  in  this  direction, 
and  that,  on  the  other  hand,  he  docs  not  shrink  from 
asserting  that  Austria-Hungary  made  "  great  sacrifices. "" 
These  sacrifices  are  quite  unknown.  It  is  clear  that 
Austria-Hungary  did  not  concede  a  single  point  of  her 
ultimatum  to  Serbia,  and  Andrassy  himself  says  that 
"more  radical  means"  than  those  of  the  Entente  would 
have  to  be  used.  As  regards  Germany's  helj),  it  was  not  of 
a  kind  to  avert  European  complications,  but  exactly  the 
reverse. 


VJH       Before,  During,  and  Ajter  H»14 

We  have  on  record  from  an  Austrian  source  a  remarkable 
statement  which  is  in  clear  contrast  to  Andrassys  view  and 
shows  that  Germany  really  stood  in  Austria's  way  and 
exerted  a  ilettrmining  inlhience  on  her  attitude  in  the 
Serbian  disjmte.  I  refer  to  a  eonHnunicatit)n  in  La 
ddZcttt'  lie  Lausanne  of  Deceml)er  17,  1914,  from  an  Auatriun 
diplomatist,  who  liad  retired  on  account  of  differences  of 
opinion  with  the  leaders  of  Austro-Hun^'arian  policy.  He 
wrt)te,  amongst  other  things,  the  following  :  "  The  Serljian 
answer  t(^  the  Austrian  Note  after  the  Srrajtvo  crime 
seemed  satisfactory  enough  to  justify  us  in  claiming  a  real 
diplomatic  victory.  By  consenting  to  a  conference  of  the 
Gnat  Powers  we  could  have  secured  a  partial  surrender 
sullieient  to  prevent  a  recrudescence  of  the  Grcat-Serbism 
whieh  the  G(jvernment  at  Belgrade  has  favoured  to  our 
detriment. 

Our  diplomacy  was  spurred  on  to  tnuiiitaining  an  obdurate 
attitude,  and  at  the  moment  when  the  (juestion  stemid, 
in  spite  of  all,  to  be  ncaring  a  solution,  the  ultimatum  to 
Ku^sia  was  dis{)atehed  in  order  to  cut  off  our  retreat  and 
l)re:ent  any  conciliatory  efforts  on  our  j)art. 

Kver  since  Oet<jber  7,  187'J,  when  we  signed  the  treaties 
of  alliance  with  Germany  and  Italy,  we  have  been  a 
political  tool  in  Prussia's  hand.  Italy's  role  has  been  no 
m(»re  pleasing,  but  during  the  last  few  years  she  has 
managed  to  enumcipate  herself  from  the  Prussian  tyranny 
and  safeguard  her  vital  interests,  and  this  at  our  expense. 
I'or  thirty  years  the  Bullplatz  has  toed  the  line  traced  out  by 
lii  rlin  ;  wf  have  forgotten  .Sadowa  and  turned  e»ur  attention 
to  the  Kast,  whieh  Ciermany  assigned  to  us  as  a  suita!)le 
prey  and  at  the  same  time  prevent ed  us  from  taking.  \N  <• 
ha\c  St  rved  only  to  alarm  Russia,  to  threaten  th<'  mtt  rests 
of  tlie  Mrditerranean  PoU(  rs,  and  tinis  to  mamtain  the 
pnliticdl  insecurity  indisjycnsable  to  llu  rulrrs  af  lit  rnuutii  in 
nrdrr  that  the  lieichslag  tni'dht  Ix  induced  to  pass  the  in- 
crea-'^itm^h^  burdensome  H'ar  liud^tt." 

We  liav<    seen  from  the  foregoing  how  tirst  Serl)ia  in  her 


Austria's  Opposition  ]'.)U 

reply  aiul  llicii  the  Eiujxior  Nicholas  projiosccl  thai  the 
Serbian  dispute  should  be  referred  to  The  Hague  Conference, 
and  that  Great  IJritain  and  France  suggested  nudiation 
through  the  Great  Powers,  but  that  Austria  would  have 
nothing  to  do  with  it. 

Now,  if  ever,  with  the  j)rospeet  of  a  general  Kuroj)ean 
war,  surely  the  Powers  should  have  been  unanimous  in 
referring  the  dispute  to  The  Hague  Tribunal.  Tlu-  parties 
to  The  Hague  Conference  of  11K)7  aflirnied  their  indexible 
desire  to  work  for  the  nuiintenance  of  vniiversal  peace  and 
to  encourage  by  every  means  in  their  j)ower  an  <unicablc 
scltlnnint  of  international  disputes.  They  also  bound 
themselves,  as  far  as  circumstances  would  j)ermit,  to  invite 
the  eo-o})eration  of  impartial  Powers  before  having  recourse 
to  arms. 

It  is  curious  to  note  that  Serbia  had  not  pledged  herself 
to  The  Hague  Convention,  ])ut  that  Austria,  on  the  other 
hand,  was  a  party  to  it  ! 

What  can  have  been  Austria's  innermost  motive  in  the 
dispute  with  Serbia  in  preferring  the  arbitrament  of  war  t(j 
consenting  to  arbitration  ? 

This  motive  must  have  been  a  very  serious  one.  I  can 
fmd  only  one  reason  :  the  Austrian  Government  nuist 
have  feared  that  the  mandate  of  the  Berlin  Congress 
authorizing  Austria  to  occupy  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  the 
occupation  itself  after  a  three  months"  war,  and  linally  the 
formal  anncxaiion  would  be  brought  forward  as  throwing 
some  light  on  the  anti-Austrian  agitation  in  Serbia  and 
Bosnia. 

It  was  impossible  to  tell  beforehand  how  a  conference 
would  regard  these  matters.  The  mandate  of  the  Berlin 
Congress  authorizing  Austria  to  occupy  the  jn-ovinees 
might  be  disajiprovcd  of  different  times,  new  ]M)ints  of 
view,  other  men  or  perhaps  the  conference  would  not 
endorse  the  Imperial  rcserij^t  proclaimii^t,'  tlu^  annexation 
and  would  declare  it  to  be  but  a  icori}ih'-'ss  scrap  of  paper  - 
with  far  more  reason  than  Bethmann-IIolIweg  had  in  so 
deseribinn'  the  Belgian  Neutralitv  Treat w 


200       Before,  During,  and  Afier  1914 

^-  Austria  has  maintained,  in  view  of  the  Great-Serbian 
aspirations,  that  it  was  impossible  for  Austria  to  eoneedc 
any  part  of  her  territory  to  Serbia  ;  it  would  havi-  l)een  a 
dan<:er()Us  preeedent  for  otiier  parts  of  the  Moiiarehy. 

But  supposing  tjiat  a  eonfirenee  were  to  decide  that  the 
part  called  Hosnia  and  lit  rzegoviiui  was  n«»t  a  Ic^^Mtimatcly 
acijuired  territory  ?  Supposing  it  were  to  regard  the 
annexation  as  a  breach  <>f  international  rights  ? 

These  ft  ars  would  have  been  well  grounded,  and  Austria 
clearly  did  nt»t  wish  to  run  the  risk,  aiul  refused  unct»n- 
ditjiinally  to  agree  to  the  arbitration  prt)]>t)sals.  liut  she 
could  not  iiavc  acted  as  she  did  without  Germany's  help 
and  without  the  hoj)c  that  Germany  would  give  her  an 
( ffccti\e  backing. 

Andrassy  says  so  outright  in  his  book  ]i'tr  hai  den  A'/wVg 
•i(  rhrmlit  n  ?  "  (it  rmatiy,"  he  says,  "  did  all  in  lier  power 
to  locali/e  the  (pustion,  but  when  slu-  saw  that  this  could 
not  be  d<»ne  and  that  Russia  was  ^\iiling  to  go  to  war  lor 
the  sake  of  Serbia's  prestige,  (it  rman\'  had  but  one  aim  : 
to  conduct  the  ncgot  iat  ii  »ns  in  such  a  \va\'  as  to  bring 
al)out  a  fjiiid:  ddisinn  and  <  nJiducc  iJic  ])riispnts  df:  irtcii/. 

M.  Ivanovitch,  Serbian  Minister  at  \'iemia,  \srote  to  the 
Premier,  M.  Pashitch.  in  a  report  on  the  situation,  that 
Ilerr  \on  'rschirseky,  (ierman  ambassador  in  \  i»  nna,  had 
stated  openly  that  Jiiissid  'uuiild  hctp  ijiiiit  xcliiL^t  Anslrid- 
Ilnn'^nri/  rarrird  out  Iter  piinilivc  t  rptditiat}  a'jainst  Serl)ia. 
and  that  Russia  had  no  right  to  inti  r\i m. 

Long  before  this  it  had  Ixcn  said  and  uritti  n  in  X'ieiuia 
that  therr  must  be  xair  :t.ilh  liussia  hifuri-  sli<-  tiwv  rtddi/  in 
a  militarv  sense. 

Thr  l-'pi  iieh  ainliassad'T  in  \'i(  iin;i.  M.  Duiiianu-.  w  r^t  r  i  >n 
July  L's.  I'.tn.  to  the  For<  il;ii  Muiist.  r  :  ■■The  m^st  dis 
i|ni«  ting  among  the  sus|,ieions  aroiisi d  b\  thr  suddt n  and 
\  lohnt  r<  s(il\  e  of  .\iist  na  i>  t  hat  (ii  rnian\  ma\  ha\  (  urgid 
h' r  to  agLT'ssinn  against  .S(  rbia  so  as  to  Im  able  herself 
to  <iit-r  the  lists  ag.aiiist  l''r;ine<-  and  Russia  in  eireum- 
st;iii'-.  ,  which  sjic  sii[,j,o..  s  to  be  the  most  la\om'alile  for 
h.  r.- 


Germany  Supports  Austria  201 

The  Italian  Premier,  Salandra,  made  a  statement  in  the 
Chamber  on  December  4,  1914,  concerninjr  the  (jiitbrcak  of 
war,  wliich  also  shows  tlie  opinion  l»eld  in  Austria  with 
regard  to  Russia's  attitude  :  "  From  tlie  beginning  of  the- 
war,  after  the  Serajcvo  crime,  wlitn  the  reUitions  between 
Austria  and  Serbia  were  at  their  worst,  the  then  Foreign 
Minister,  the  Marquis  di  San  Giuliano,  deemed  it  his  duty 
to  advise  Vieima  to  shozv  moderation  and  avoid  Russian 
intervention  in  Belgrade's  favour.  To  tliis  Austria  replied 
that  she  did  not  think  that  Russia  zvas  sujjiciently  prepared, 
after  the  war  with  Japan,  to  undertake  any  military 
operations  in  aid  of  Serbia." 

The  German  Government  and  General  Staff  were  well 
aware  of  the  need  for  protnpt  action,  and  certainly  did  not 
expect  that  Russia  would  be  ready  to  fight  Germany  in 
1914.  And  so  Germany  boldly  challenged  fate  and  placed 
herself  without  wavering  by  the  side  of  Austria-Hungary 
when  that  monarchy  declared  war  on  Serbia. 

Germany's  i)lan,  confident  as  she  was  in  her  superior 
preparedness  for  war,  and  believing  that  she  would  only 
have  the  Franco-Russian  Alliance  to  deal  with,  was  to 
hurl  herself  on  France  with  lightning  speed  and  force  her 
to  ea})itulate,  or  at  all  events  to  take  Paris  by  a  coup  de 
vwin,  and  then  with  equal  rapidity  to  throw  tiie  greater 
part  of  her  armies  across  to  Russia  and  bring  her  to  her 
knees  by  a  scries  of  decisive  victories.  In  Berlin  olliccrs 
boasted  at  the  beginning  of  the  war  with  the  most  un- 
bounded  confidence  before  ])crsons  whom  I  know  that  "  in 
four  weeks  we  shall  be  in  Paris,"  and  this  seems  to  have 
been  the  general  opinion. 

As  England  in  1914  was  menaced  with  civil  war  in 
Ireland  and  stood  on  the  threshhold  of  a  social  revolution, 
and  Russia  was  also  being  threatened  by  a  new  vast 
upheaval,  M-hilst  in  France  the  new  Army  Bill  was  still 
under  discussion,  it  is  all  too  probable  that  Germany  and 
xVustria  deemed  the  moment  propitious  for  a  war  with 
these  countries  and  thought  it  inexpedient  to  delay  any 
longer. 


202        Before,  Dluinl;,  and  After  101 1 

Although  war  might  have  bein  avuickil  il"  Austria  hail 
accepted  the  proposals  for  mediation  in  the  Serbian  con- 
flict, it  was  represented  that  tiie  xcar  was  forctd  upon 
Austria.  Thus  Francis  Josej)h  wrote  to  Stiirgkh.  the 
Prime  Ministtr  (Fehruary  lUl.')),  an  autograph  letter  in 
whiih  the  following  passage  occurred  :  "  \Vhen  I  look  hack 
upon  the  {)erio(l  of  half  a  year,  during  which  wi-  have  been 
invoKfd  in  a  stru^ult-  forced  upon  us  hy  the  hostilr  inten- 
tions of  our  enemies,  1  think  with  a  grateful  heart  of  the 
self-sacrilicing  bearing  of  my  faithful  peojjKs  in  this  trying 
time." 

Andrassy  sj)caks  in  a  similar  strain  in  hisab()vc-mentit)ned 
book  on  the  causes  of  the  war  :  '"  The  resj)onsibility  rests 
in  the  fu'st  {)lace  with  Russia,  and  in  a  lesser  degree  with  her 
Allies,      lit  have  mcrtlij  defended  dursehes." 

In  his  speech  from  the  throne,  witii  which  the  Em|)eror 
William  opened  the  Kxtraordinary  Session  of  the  Reichstag 
on  August  i,  he  expresses  himself  in  the  following  terms  : 
"  Francis  Joseph  zcas  conipelled  to  have  recourse  to  arrns 
in  (1( fence  of  the  safety  of  his  country  from  the  dangt  rous 
j)lottinLjs  of  a  neighbouring  State.  .  .  .  Win  u  the  .Ahdiarcliy 
with  which  wi-  are  allied  asserted  its  rightful  interists,  the 
Jiussitui  Kinj)ire  jilaced  itself  in  its  path.  It  is  not  only  our 
duty  as  faithful  Allies  that  calls  us  to  the  side  of  Austria; 
we  arc  also  confronted  with  the  tremendous  task  of  safe- 
f^uardirrj  our  oicn  })nsition  as  well  as  the  culture  common  to 
our  two  countries  from  the  assault  of  the  enemies"  forc<s. 
.  .  .  The  hostility  which  has  so  long  been  smouldering  in 
I'iasf  and  \V<  st  has  now  burst  luio  llame.  The  |)resent 
situation  is  the  result  of  the  accumulattil  resentment  of 
mari\  \<  ars  at  the  niii^ht  and  prospi  ritij  of  the  (it  nnau 
Kiitpnt.  .  .  .  I'roni  the  docunnnts  which  ha\c  Ixcn 
plac((i  before  sou  (the  (ierniau  U'hite  lionh)  you  will  see 
how  iii\-  (io\(  rnmenf,  and  first  and  foremost  my  (  haiic<  llor, 
ha\e  to  the  verv  last  stri\<ii  to  (ntrt  a  cattistropin  .  In 
St  If  ill  fi  lui .  with  a  clear  coiisei(  nee  and  with  clean  hands, 
do  We  t  ake  up  the  sword." 

'i'he  Imperial  (  haneellor.  H- t hmann  Ilollweg,  explained 


Germany  Sui'i'oitis  Aisihia  i>o;j 

the  situation  on  tlie  outbreak  ol'  war  in  the  Cicrniun  H'liilc 
Book  (August  3).  He  deseribed  the  ej>ns|)iraey  aj^'ainst 
tlie  Arcliduke  Franeis  Ferdinand  and  the  Great-Serbian 
agitation,  and  spoke  of  Serbia's  hope  of  obtaining  li(jsnia 
and  Herzegovina  with  Russia's  aid,  but  lie  said  notliing  of 
Austria's  annexation  of  the  provinees  and  their  (hssatisfae- 
tion  with  this  step.  He  evidently  eonsi<hrcd  that  tlie 
Austrian  Emperor  was  aeting  fully  within  his  rights  wh*  ii 
he  annexed  them  to  liis  realm  in  11K)8,  and  that  every  pr<i- 
tcst  against  this  aetion  was  a  criminal  act.  He  wrote  as 
follows  :  "  It  was  j)lain  to  Austria  tliat  it  eoiild  not  be 
consistent  with  the  dignity  and  spirit  of  srlf-prescrvation 
of  the  Monarchy  to  remain  any  longer  an  imu'tivc  witness 
of  this  movement  on  the  other  side  of  the  frontier.  The 
Imperial  and  Royal  Government  appcuUd  lo  Gcruuinif s 
righlcous  judgment  and  asked  us  to  state  our  opinion.  \Ve 
could  not  V)ut  endorse  zcith  all  our  In  art  our  villus'  vine  of 
the  situation.  .  .  .  We  could  not,  when  Austria-Hungary's 
vital  interests  were  at  stake,  advise  her  to  make  cc^n- 
cessions,  the  more  so  as  our  own  interests  were  sensibly 
threatened  by  the  Serbian  agitation.  If  the  Seri)s,  with 
Russia's  and  France's  aid,  had  continued  to  threaten 
the  existence  of  Austria-Hungary,  this  would  by  degrees 
have  led  to  Austria's  downfall  and  the  subjection  of 
all  Slavs  to  tlic  Russian  sceptre,  and  the  position  (f  the 
Germanic  race  in  Central  Europe  would  have  been  made 
untenable.'' 

It  is  truly  surprising  to  witness  this  solicitude  on  Austria's 
behalf  in  a  quarter  from  which  that  country  had  suffered 
the  cruellest  blozc  dealt  it  in  modern  times,  when  Prussia 
made  war  on  Austria  and  vanquished  her  at  Sadowa.  shook 
her  position  as  a  Great  Power,  drove  her  out  of  tlu'  German 
Federation,  and  took  Venetia  from  the  Monai'ehy  in  oi'der 
to  ])resent  that  province  to  Italy.  No  country  was  for  a 
long  time  afterwards  so  hated  in  Austria  as  Prussia,  to 
which  the  anti-Prussian  policy  of  the  Prime  Minister 
Beust  bore  witness,  when  he  plotted  viiigeanee  for  ISCC, 
sought  a  French  alliance,  promised  Napoleon  HI  Austria  s 


201       Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

support  in  the  war  of  ISTO,  and  worked  against  Gemianys 
rcconstitution  alttr  ISTl. 

As  a  citMiprnsation  lor  Vinitia,  Germany  helped  Austria 
to  j,'rt  Bosnia  anil  IKrzr^Mn  iiia  :  hut  tliis  hroiight  her 
n<tthing  hut  Ircsh  dillieultic  s.  If  her  existence  is  threatened 
at  the  j)resint  nionunt,  it  is  lirst  and  fori  most  due  to  that 
arhitrary  annexation. 

Ilcrr  von  lit  thniann-IIollwi-g  sought  to  show  how  \var 
had  hc(  n  nuulr  im  vitahle  hy  llussia's  intervention,  and  his 
main  ar^'unii  nt  in  this  nspeet  was  the  declaration  which 
the  (iernian  (ioverninent  made  to  Russia  : 

'■  liu.ssia's  prcparatonj  mHitary  nwa^suri's  have  com]>elled 
Us  to  take  counter-measures  wliieh  must  take  the  form  of 
mohili/ation.     Hut  a  ninhilizdiian  mians  ziar.'^ 

To  him  the  (juestion  of  mohilization  was  the  deciding 
factor,  and  he  reh  rs  to  mohilization  in  one  country  or  the 
otht  r  twi  nty  four  tinn  s  in  ele\en  j)ages  in  the  li'liilc  litiok 
to  show  that  "the  Hiissian  (Government,  hy  tluir  mohiliza- 
tion. which  imperilled  the  safity  of  the  (ierman  Kmj>ire, 
frustrated  the  j)ainstakinL:  mediatory  efforts  of  the 
IOuroj)ian  Cahinets."' 

Wht  n  Kussi.i  (hd  not  stuj)  lur  mol)ilization  on  .\ustrias 
declaration  «.!'  war  ai/ain^t  Serbia,  the  (it  rman  (i<  >\"i  rnnu  lit 
declared  that  "  wc  consider  oursel\(  s  in  a  state  of  war 
since  our  (1<  iiiaiids  lia\i-  Ixtu  rejected.  l'"urt  hermore, 
I{us>,ian  ffoojis  had  crossed  oui"  frontiers  and  marclud  into 
(ieriiian  t(  rritoiy  l»i  tore  the  contirmation  of  the  carrying 
out  >>{'  tin  old-  r  had  he n  recei\((l.  lius.sid  thus  hc^iUl 
th(  Ti'/r  ii;j^(ti}i^l  us." 

With  n  ^jard  to  I'rancr.  th'-  (haiicellor  assi  rtid  that  her 
l*rim<  Ministi  r,  on  (i<  rmaiiy  inipiirinu'  as  to  her  attitude, 
^H\<-  "ail  uiis.it  is|;i(t  1  ii\  aiisxscr  and  dtclan  d  th.it  l-'ianc<' 
mf'ndcd  t'l  act  a-  hi  r  interests  diclat-d.  A  li w  Imurs 
lat '  r  oitj'  r-  \vi  If  s,  lit  out  I  or  tin-  moliih/.at  ion  of  t  he  entire 
I'r' iieh     .VrniN     and     \a\y.      ()ii     the     folhtwui^     morniiii,' 

r'ruiKi    f  i't/t)flt  H<  I  (I  hn.slililh  ^. 

'I'hi  Chancellor  (  ndea\ ourc  d  to  support  this  assertion, 
ii,a<l'    in  hn   H'  ich  -t  ai^  ^j,.  <  eh  o|'  .\M;,'u^t    !.   hy  <piot  lug  t  he 


Germany  Supports  Austria  20.5 

German  ambassador  von  Schoon's  unconfirmed  statement 
as  to  liostilo  acts  on  the  part  of  the  French. 

It  should,  liowever,  he  pointed  out  that,  as  the  Kreneh 
Government  emphasized,  tnobilizaium  is  nat  zidr. 

Of  this  Sweden  is  an  example.  Directly  the  war  hn^ke 
out  the  Government  ordered  general  mohili/ation,  but  this 
was  most  certainly  not  done  in  order  that  we  might  take 
part  in  the  war  on  one  side  or  the  otiier,  but  so  as  to  i)lacc 
us  in  a  position  to  defend  our  neutrality  in  ease  it  should 
be  violated. 

The  impartial,  pragmatic  historian,  wiio  depicts  the 
sequence  of  events  and  traces  them  to  their  source,  cannot 
admit  that  a  mobilization  shall  be  held  up  as  reason  for  a 
declaration  of  war.  The  tactical  device  of  thus  denouncing 
the  opponent  as  iJie  atlackiug  pariy  is  an  old  one,  and  might 
now  be  regarded  as  anticpuited.  This  j)ersistent  produc- 
tion of  proofs -real  or  apparent —as  to  uJio  ttv/.s-  iJic  first 
to  vwbilizc  and  as  to  ri.7/o  teas  the  fust  to  cross  the  frontier  is  a 
diplomatic  trick  which  ins{)ires  little  res[K'ct.  The  inten- 
tion was  to  i)oint  to  certain  countries  as  the  real  instigators 
of  the  war,  whilst  others  would  seem  to  Iuiac  done  all  in 
their  power  to  preserve  peace  and  to  stand  forth  as  the 
attacked  party,  forced  into  a  war  of  self-defence.  It  is 
the  old  story.  Xo  impartial  and  thinking  observer  j)ays 
any  heed  to  it.  The  date  of  the  itiohilization  in  one  country 
or  the  other  is  a  secondary  matter,  however  important  it 
is  made  to  appear.  The  mobilizations  did  not  settle  the 
(question  of  peace  or  war. 

The  war  between  Russia  antl  Austria-Hungary  was 
stated  here  to  have  come  about  as  follows  :  The  Austrian 
ambassador  in  Berlin  telegraphed  on  August  2  to  C'cnnit 
Bcrchtold  :  "'  Russian  troops  have  crossed  the  German 
frontier  at  Schwidcn.  Russia  has  thus  attacked  Germany. 
Germany  therefore  considers  herself  at  war  with  Russia."' 
Thercu]-)on  Count  Berchtold,  in  a  Xotc^  to  th(^  Russian 
Foreign  Minister  on  August  .'),  deehux'cl  that  "in  eou- 
scquence  of  Russia's  threatening  attitude  in  the  eontliet 
between    the   Austro-IIuniiarian    Monareliv    anil    Serbia,"" 


20G        Before,  Dlrinc;,  and  Ai-ter  1914 

and  as  Russia  "  hy  nasuii  of  tliis  contlict  considers  herself 
JMstili«'<l  in  commrncitiii  host i lilies  uiiain.st  GtTiminy,  and 
Citrniaiiy  is  thus  in  a  state  of  war  with  tiio  said  Great 
Power.  Austria-IIunj,'ary  hkewist-  considtrs  lirrst'lf  to  be 
at  :t<ir  :i////  liussia/' 

(icrniany  having  dcchirt-d  that  a  state  of  war  existed, 
the  Tsar  issued  a  manifesto  containing'  the  following 
passaL'e  :  •'  Austria  Ilun^'ary,  Iiaving  presented  denumds 
to  Serhia  wliieh  were  intent ioiuilly  of  such  a  nature  as 
Cduld  not  bf  itcci  ptid  hy  an  independent  State,  and  having, 
without  eon>ichrin<,'  the  Serbian  Goverinnent's  pacific  and 
coneihatory  answer,  rejected  Russia's  friendly  interven- 
tion, hdstt'ntd  to  procitd  to  an  arnwd  attack  and  began  the 
botnharchnent  of  the  defenceli-ss  city  of  Belgrade.  .  .  . 
Russia's  duty  is  not  only  to  protect  a  kindred  State,  which 
has  fxrii  iwiriu'htt  ously  affronted,  but  also  to  safeguard 
Russia's  lionour.  her  dignity,  lur  integrity,  and  her  place 
arnonijst  the  (inat  Powers.'' 

Ret  ween  France  and  Austria-Hungary  the  state  of  war 
bc'jan  by  thr  I'n  neh  (iovernrnent  intimating  that  "since 
the  Austro  Hungarian  Ciovernnunt  have  declared  war  on 
Srrbia,  and  have  thus  tahen  the  first  step  to  lidstilitiis  in 
I'luropc.  th'  y  ha\"e  without  challenge  from  the  tiovernmcnt 
of  tin-  I'rench  R<  public  creattd  a  state  ';/  uv/r  xeitJi  France  : 
(I)  (i<  rmany  ha\  ing  in  turn  declared  ^\•ar  on  Russia  and 
I'rarici-.  the  Austro-Hungarian  (io\ermuint  has  entered  the 
contlict.  ("J)  According  to  nunurous  trustworthy  rej)orts, 
Austria  has  dispatched  troops  to  the  (icrman  frontier  under 
circiHiist  aiict  >  '  (|ui\alint  to  a  direct  threat  against  France. 
Iti  \  i-\v  of  t  Ins.-  facts  t  he  French  (jovernmenf  arc  compelled 
to  d' i!ar<-  that  tiny  will  take  all  steps  which  may  l)e 
n<-c'>sary  to  rep|\-  to  tli<  se  .acts  and  threats." 

(Jr<  at  nnf.aiu  entered  a  state  of  war  with  Austria  by  Sir 
Ivlward  (ii<y  s  d<cIaration  that  ".as  a  rupture  has  taken 
jilai'f  Willi  l-"ranc<-  ;i  state  of  war  exists  betw<i-n  (inat 
Hrifani  and  Austria  Iluni^'ary."' 

Tli'-i'   I ^  le I  doubt  that  thc(ieiinan  Imperial  (io^■eI■I1mcnt 


War  Declarations  of  the  Powers      207 

could  have  averted  rear  had  they  wisliccl  t(»  do  so,  A 
juxtaposition  and  impartial  examination  of  all  tlic  Notes 
exchanged  between  the  Powers  as  taken  from  their 
ollieial  IVhile,  Yelloxv,  and  Jiluc  Hooks,  etc.  shows  this 
with  the  utmost  clearness.  In  this  respect  Germany  has 
not  been  "  maligned  "  by  licr  opponents. 

When  M.  Viviani  in  iiis  speech  in  the  Chamlxr  of 
Deputies  on  December  22,  1914,  said  that  Germany  could 
have  i)revented  the  war  as  late  as  July  .*J1,  had  she  agree(i 
to  the  proposal  already  accepted  i)y  Russia  and  France 
for  i)ourparlers  in  London,  and  had  she  meanwhile  sus- 
pended all  military  measures,  Bethmann-IIollweg  contro- 
verted this  view — which  is  becoming  more  and  more 
widely  shared  in  neutral  countries  in  a  long  circular  to 
the  German  diplomats  abroad  in  which,  as  in  all  his 
previous  utterances,  he  merely  deyiied  everything  that  had 
been  said  and  proved  by  opponents  as  to  Germany's  nega- 
tive negotiations  prior  to  the  outbreak  of  war,  and  once 
more  threw  the  blame  on  England,  France,  and  Russia. 

Italy's  neutrality  during  the  early  part  of  the  war  was 
significant,  not  only  as  a  disappointment  for  Germany 
and  Austria,  as  Italy  had  now  left  the  Triple  Alliance,  but 
also  as  bearing  on  the  question  whether  the  war  was  one 
of  attack  or  defence.  Italy  was  tied  to  the  Triple  Alliance 
only  in  the  event  of  the  other  members  of  the  Alliance 
being  attacked — that  is  to  say,  waging  a  defensive  tiv/r  - 
but  not  if  they  were  the  attacking  parties.  This  is  clearly 
evident  from  the  statement  which  the  Premier,  Signor 
Salandra,  made  in  the  Italian  Chamber  on  December  4, 
1914,  in  the  course  of  which  he  said  :  "  Without  our  having 
been  consulted  and  uithout  our  approval,  the  war  suddenly 
broke  out.  After  weighing  with  the  utmost  conscientious- 
ness the  letter  as  tvell  as  the  spirit  of  the  Treaty  of  Alliance, 
and  after  having  made  ourselves  thoroughly  acquainted 
zcith  the  causes  and  the  aims  of  the  xcar,  we  arrived  at  the 
conscientious  and  firm  conviction  that  we  were  not  bound 
to  take  part  in  it,  and  we  accordingly  at  once  proclaimed 
our  neutrality.'' 


208        Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

Thus  the  Itahan  Government  were  unable  to  share  the 
view  of  the  German  Government,  that  Austria  and  Germany 
were  attacked  and  were  eompelled  to  wa^e  a  defensive 
war,  but  considered,  on  tlie  contrary,  that  they  were 
themselves  the  attackers  and  that  their  war  was  a  xciir 
of  aggression. 


XI  r     continued 
THE  WORLD  WAR  OF   1911 

C.  (iKHMANv's  Violation  of  tin:  Xkutkamty  of  Hkl- 
oii'M  AND  Li'xi:.mbijU(;  :  CiKUMANY  Ni:(;oi  lA  ri;s  wrni 
(JuKAT  HuiTAiN  :  Gkumanv's  IIosTii.i:  Mkasirks 
AGAINST  Franch  AND  Rklgium  :  Protksts  :  Dkclaka- 
TiON  OF  War  :  Tiif  Defkndkrs  of  tiik  Violation  of 
NnuTRALFrY  :  What  drove  Great  BRnwiN  into 
Participation  in  the  War  :  Synopsis  of  the  Causes 
OF  the  World  War. 

Austria's  ultimatum  and  dcclaratiou  of  war  af^ain^t 
Serbia  drew  Russia  into  the  war  between  tliese  countries, 
with  the  result  that  Germany,  as  Austria's  ally,  declared 
war  on  Russia.  France,  as  Russia's  ally,  was  botmd  to 
join  in  the  war  a<fainst  Germany,  whom  she  had  not 
challenfTcd,  and  Germany  desired,  in  pursuance  of  her 
})lan  of  campaign,  to  penetrate  into  France  acToss  iu-r 
most  vulnerable  frontier,  that  in  tiie  north-cast,  for  which 
reason  she  asked  Belgium  and  Luxemburg  to  |)ermit 
her  armies  to  march  through  these  eountrics,  although 
their  iu;utrality  had  i^cen  guaranteed  by  treaty  {cf.  pp. 
82—8-1).  ^L  Davignon,  the  Belgian  Foreign  Minister,  on 
July  25,  191-1,  advised  those  Powers  who  had  guaranteed 
her  neutrality  that,  in  the  event  of  the  realization  of  the 
menace  of  a  Franco-German  war,  it  was  the  Belgian 
Government's  "firm  resolve  to  fulfil  ilie  inierndtinnal 
ohligntions  imposed  u])on  us  by  the  treaties  of  1S;59." 

N'evertheless    the    German     Chancellor    on     August     2 
demanded  that   Belgium  should   "  observe   a   bene\olent 

209  o 


210        Before,  Diking,  and  After  1914 

nt'utrality  towards  (Jt  rinany  "  and  jx-niiit  a  free  passage 
thr(ni;;li  Htlu'iaii  t(rrit<>r\'.  t lir<-atrniii«:  that  it'  Hrljjjium 
acted  ill  a  hostile  maimer  towards  the  (iermaii  troops  - 
that  is  to  sa\',  lUftndtd  lur  luutrnliiii  she  "  would  he 
regarded  as  Ci  rttumtf  s  cnnint."  The  reason  adduced 
was  that  the  (iermau  (ioverimierit  "  possessed  reliahle 
inh)rmation  as  to  an  iutnuled  ad\aiice  of  French  forces 
aJoii^f  the  Meuse  o\-er  the  sector  from  (ii\et   to  Xanuir." 

No  e\  ideiice  was  offered  in  support  of  this  assertion. 

The  Hel^jian  Forei^Mi  Minister  replied  that  "  the  inten- 
tions ascribed  to  l-'ranee  were  contrary  to  the  express 
declaration  <,u\'en  us  in  the  name  of  the  ltej)ul>lic  on 
AuL,Mist  1,"  and  that  "  if  H(  l^'ian  lu  utrality  were  \iolated 
l)V  I'ranee  litlniinn  should  fulfil  all  Inr  inh  rtuilionul  uhli'tid- 
ti'ins."  "  Till-  Jieli,Man  (Government,  were  they  to  accept 
the  projx'sals  made,  would  sully  the  honour  of  the 
nation  and  at  the  same  time  /<//'/  ///  llwir  dudts  laxctirds 
Kuropt ." 

The  (ierman  (io\'irmnent  thereupon  declarid.  on 
Aui_Misf  1,  that  in  \  iew  of  this  ne<jati\c  answer  they  \\ituld 
he  cijinptlled  to  ""take  such  rutdsurts  af  jtrtcuutinn  as 
were  defined  indispeiis.il  )|e  to  count  eriiiL'  the  FiiUfli 
til  re  ids." 

Diplomatic  relations  were  tin  reupon  hrokt  n  off. 

On  the  same  day  the  British  (io\'ernment  iidoiined  the 
liel'_'iaii  (ii  >\ernmeiit  that  tlie\-  '"  expect  that  Hi  iL'inm  will 
resist  l)\  aii\'  nie.ans  in  her  powir.  ;uid  that  they  are 
prep;  lied,  joint  U'  \s  it  h  Hussja  and  l"i;uic(  .  t  o  offer  ci>minon 
aeti'iii  f<i|-  the  purp<i-,e  (.f  !•(  sistiiiLT  Use  (if  force  l)\'  (iermanv 
aL:aiiist     H'  L'iniii.'" 

When  the  I'reiich  (eiNfinmiiit  weic  infoniied  ..f  (;(r- 
maii\  s  ultimatinn  \>>  M- Ilmmiii  coihv  rniiiL'  the  lueiieh  of 
neutraht\,  t  h' \'  |iri)t(sted  ;i;jaiiist  it  m  t|i(  t"ol|o\\in<j 
terms:  "  'I'h'-  (io\er!irii' nt  of  the  1{(  pulijie  jimtisf  to  all 
ci\ili/.<d  nation^,  and  especi.iHy  to  tin    (Jox  einnK  nt  s  si^na 

\i<V\     fo    the    eoii\ent  ions    and     tleali.s    j  lespect  iuLT     HelL'iail 

neiitraht\].   ajjainst    the  \  idl.itinti  hi/  (i,  niiu/ii/  nf  Ikv  inlir 
rinfi'iinil   i  irjd'jnnrfils  ;     t  he\     make    all    reservations    as    to 


Germany's  Violation  of  Neutuality    iill 

the  reprisals  wliich  they  may  be  led  to  use  a<,'ainst  an 
enemy  so  httlc  iR-edful  of  a  ^ivcii  word."  * 

When  the  fortress  of  Lit^^'e  had  !)e(n  taken  by  tlx- 
Germans,  the  German  Government  soujrlit  to  inchiec  the 
Belgian  Government  to  })eeome  a  party  to  the  hrtaeh  of 
neutrahty  :  "  Germany  does  not  come  as  an  enemy  to 
Belgium."  When  the  Belgian  army,  l)y  heroic  resistance 
against  overwhelming  numbers,  had  upheld  its  military 
honour,  the  Gc-rman  Government  asked  the  King  of  the 
Belgians  and  the  Belgian  Government  "  to  sj)are  Belgium 
the  further  horrors  of  war." 

When  this  aj)peal,  which  would  have  meant  iiiihatnjjrrcd 
oprratiojis  in  Bd^iinyn  afininst  France,  was  rejected,  it 
was  said  that  "  Belgium  has  committed  suicide."  But 
Belgium,  had  she  granted  this  request,  would  have 
betrayed  her  neutrality. 

The  German  Government  had  nursed  the  hope  of  seeing 
Great  Britain  remain  neutral  in  this  war,  and  made 
strenuous  efforts  to  achieve  this  end. 

On  July  20,  1914,  Sir  Edward  Goschen,  the  British 
ambassador  in  Berlin,  telegraphed  to  Sir  Edward  Cirey  : 
''  The  Chancellor  said  that  if  Austria  were  attacked  by 
Russia  a  European  coujlagration  might,  he  feared,  become 
inevitable,  owing  to  Gerniaiufs  ohligations  as  Austria's 
ally,  in  spite  of  his  continued  efforts  to  maintain  j)eaee. 
lie  then  proceeded  to  make  the  following  strcMig  bid 
for  British  neuirality.  lie  said  that  it  was  clear  so  far 
as  he  was  able  to  judge  the  main  princij^le  which  governed 
British  policy  that  Great  Britain  would  never  stand  l)y 
and  allow  Eranee  to  be  crushed  in  any  conflict  there  might 
be.  That,  however,  was  not  the  object  at  which  Gennany 
aimed.  Provided  that  the  neutrality  of  Great  liritaia 
were  certain,  every  assurance  woidd  be  given  to  the 
British  Government  that  the  Imperial  Government  aiiiud 
at    no  territorial   acquisitions   at   tlu>   expense   of  Eranee. 

*  The  HelgiaiifJrnyBooA-,  Xos.;3,  12.  20,  '11.  27.  2S.  iTan.i  l-iv:.cli 
Yellow  Bonk.  Xn.  1,"7. 


212        Before,  During,  and  After  191  i 

should  tluy  prove  victorious  in  nny  war  tliat  might 
ensue, 

'■  I  c}Utstii»ne{l  his  Exeellenev  about  tlie  French  coUmics, 
and  \\v  said  tliat  \\v  was  unahh'  to  ^ive  n  similar  umlcr- 
takinii  in  that  resjxet.  ...  It  depcmltd  on  tlic  action  of 
France  \vhat  ojn-rations  (krinany  niit^ht  he  forced  to 
enter  upon  in  Iiel'j,iinn,  hut  when  the  war  was  ovrr  ndLrian 
intefjrity  would  l)c  nspretitl  if  sh<-  had  n«>t  sidtd  aijainst 
(Jerinany." 

Tlius  we  find  thr  (ierniaii  Chancellor,  on  tiie  day  f'ollowinjr 
his  statement  as  to  the  necessity  of  avoidinii  xcar,  ncfro- 
tiating  with  (inat  Britain  as  if  xcar  had  alreadj/  been 
phinned.  He  had  also  accjuainted  Sir  Kdward  (ioschcn 
with  the  reply  of  the  Austrian  (io\ernment  :  7'eo  hite 
for  mediation.  "  He  ended,"  says  Sir  Kdward  (Josehen 
in  tlie  same  teletjram,  '"  l)y  saying  that  the  object  of  his 
poliev  had  been,  ever  since  he  became  Chancellor,  to 
})ring  about    an    understanding  xcilh    Fnnhuul." 

On  tile  same  da\",  .lulv  *_".>,  Sir  l-'.dward  (irey  infornad 
Sir  Kdward  (ioscheii  b\'  tt  legram  that  he  had  told  the 
(ierman  ambassador  in  London  that  '"  if  (iirmany  became 
involved  [in  war]  and  tlun  I-'ranc<-,  the  issue  might  be 
so  L'r<  at  that  it  would  iuN'ohc  all  I-'.nropean  interests; 
and  I  did  not  \\ish  him  to  b<'  misled  by  the  fii<  ndly  tt>ne 
of  our  eon\(  rsat ion  into  thinking  that  \\<'  should  stand 
aside  .  .  .  but  that  if  the  situation  realK'  became  such 
that  we  tlioUL'ht  Hritish  interests  re  tpiii'ed  us  to  inter\fne, 
tee   must   inlir:i)o'  at  cfU'c." 

Oil  .Iii!\-  .''.o  Sii-  I'ldward  (ire\"  r<pli< d  to  Sir  I-dward 
(io-.eli(  lis  tell 'jra  III  i<\'  ,]\\\v  'JI>  :  ""  His  .Majest\"s  (iovern- 
meiif  ctnuKit  t"r  a  vi"nout  eiiltrluin  the  Chancellors  j»ro- 
jvi^al  that  the\-  shi.iild  bind  t  heiiiv(  ]%( -,  to  tuulraliti/  on 
such  terms  ...  to  stand  by  whih'  I-"reiich  colomes  are 
i)ein^r  taken  and  Franct  is  Ik  iui!  cni.shi  d.  so  long  as  (i<rmany 
takes  no  I'reiieh  territor\'  as  dislmet  from  the  colonics. 
...  It  Would  be  a  disijiijcr  \<>v  us  to  uuil;f  this  h(ir<j(iin 
nith  (icrtnanij  at  the  et  ])en.se  of  Franrt  .  .  .  .  The  Chaiici  Ilor 
a  I..   Us  in   (  ff<ct    to  hun'ain  a:uii/  \\hate\<r  obligation  or 


Germany  Nkgotiates  with  Great  Huitain    'Ji;} 

interest  we  liave  as  re^^ards  the  neutrality  of  Hel^'ium. 
We  eoiild  n(»t  entertain  that  har;,'ain  eilh<r.  .  .  .  We 
must  preserve  our  full  freedom  to  aet  as  eireumstauces 
may  seem  to  us  to  recjuire." 

This  was  tlie  messa«,'e  whieli  Sir  I'klward  (iosehen  was 
instrueted  to  dehvcr  to  the  Ciianeellor,  and  he  was  to 
add  :  '*  If  tlic  peace  of  Europe  can  be  preservi-d,  and  the 
present  crisis  safely  passed,  my  own  endeavour  will  be 
to  promote  some  arrangement  to  which  Ciermany  could 
be  a  party,  by  which  she  could  be  assured  that  }i()  a;^i^re.ssifc 
or  lioslile  poliey  would  be  pursued  ajrainst  her  or  lu  r  allies 
by  France,  Russia,  and  ourselves,  jointly  or  separately." 

On  July  :i\  Sir  Edward  (ioschen  replied  to  this  tele- 
gram :  "  I  read  to  the  CluuK^ellor  your  answer  to  his 
aj)j)eal  for  British  neutrality  in  the  event  of  war.  His 
Excellency  was  so  taken  up  with  the  news  of  the  Russian 
measures  alouf^  the  frontier,  referred  to  in  my  immediately 
preceding  telegram,  that  he  received  your  connnunicalion 
without  comment.'" 

On  July  31  Sir  Edward  Grey  telegraphed  to  the  British 
ambassadors  at  Paris  and  Berlin  as  follows  :  "  In  view 
of  the  prospect  of  mobilization  in  (Germany,  it  becomes 
essential  to  his  Majesty's  Government,  in  view  i)i'  existing 
treaties,  to  ask  whether  the  French  (German)  Government 
are  prepared  to  engage  to  respeet  the  neutrality  of  Belgium 
so  long  as  no  other  Power  violates  it."'  The  ambassador 
at  Paris  rej)lied  the  same  day  that  he  had  received  an 
answer  from  the  French  Foreign  Minister  in  the  following 
terms :  "  The  French  Government  are  resolved  to  respect 
the  neutrality  of  Belgium,  and  it  would  only  be  in  the  evint 
of  some  other  Power  violating  this  neutrality  that  France 
might  lind  lu^rself  under  the  necessity,  in  order  to  ensure 
the  defence  of  her  t)wn  security,  to  aet  otherwise.  Tiiis 
assurance  has  been  given  several  times.  The  Presidrnt 
of  the  Republic  spoke  of  it  to  the  King  of  tlie  Belgians, 
and  the  French  minister  at  Brussels  has  to-day  sponta- 
neously renezced  the  assurance  to  the  Belgian  Minister  for 
Foreign  Affairs.'' 


214        Hefohk,  Dlrixg,  and  After  1011 

The  (irriuan  (J<)Virnniriit  laadi-  no  responst'  to  tlu- 
rt<|iust  ;  the  British  ainhiLssador  telegraphed  <>ii  July  31 
that  "  the  Miuistt  r  for  F<jrei|;n  Affairs  luis  inforiiucl  ine 
that  lie  iiuist  consult  the  Kinperor  aiul  the  Chancellor 
before  lie  could  possihly  answir.  I  jjathered  from  what 
he  said  that  he  thou^lit  any  rej)ly  they  nii^'ht  ^'ive  could 
not  hut  disclose  a  certain  amount  of  their  plan  (tf  campaign 
in  the  event  of  war  i-nsuin^',  and  lu-  was  thenfoie  very 
doubtful  xchtihcr  they  uouUi  rtiurn  iniy  an.sxccr  at  nil.  .  .  . 
It  apjxars  from  what  he  said  that  the  German  Ciovern- 
mriit  consider  that  ctrltiin  hostilf  (ict.s  half  alrtady  been 
emnmitted  by  litl^iutn.  As  an  instance  of  this  lie  alleged 
that  a  coU'^i^Miment  of  corn  for  Germany  had  been  placed 
undt  r  tin  etnbari^o  already.  " 

(i(  rmany's  intention  was  thus  clear.  IJut  to  "  con- 
si(l(  r  "  that  lit  l^^ium  had  committed  a  hostile  act  a^'ainst 
G(  riiiany  hy  act iu},'  as  allcLjed  is  an  utttrK  unjust  <'hartj[e  : 
for  liei^Mum  was  ixiund,  luidt  r  'J'he  IlaLTue  Convin- 
tion  of  1;h;7,  to  ordi  r  this  eml)ar;jo  alttr  Ciermany's 
ultimatum  to  Russia. 

The  H(l;,'ian  I'ort  i^n  Minister  also  made  a  statenunt 
on  the  sultji-et  to  the  effect  t  hat  it  was  a  mat  I  er  of  "  com  ply - 
in::  uit  h  tin  K<<y;il  Ordinance  of  July  ;5()  jirohihit  in;,'  lor  t  he 
time  1)(  in^  tin-  (  \|)iiit  from  liel^iium  <»f  ecilain  prodnets,"" 
and  that  wIm  ii  the  (icnuan  minister  L!a\e  notice  about 
the  ^'rain  e"Msi:,'miirnt  the  H(  iLiian  ('ustnins  autlxtrities 
<>\i  AuLiust  'J  ■■  i( criNed  instructions  which  ;,'ave  (iermany 
full    s.il  Ist'act  ii  >n."'  * 

That  Lu\i  lubiiri^f  \\i.ul<l  keep  li<r  niutralil\'  in\iolate 
was  iii.t  t'l  ]<i  I  \p«(t.ij.  An  attf  iiijit  \sas  luadc.  Iiowt  \(  t. 
\vli>  II  M.  l',\  w  ill  u.  Ik  r  riiiiic  Ministi  r,  <>n  .]\i\\  :\\ 
<!'  inaml' il  ti"iii  t  li>  (i'liiiaii  miiiist.r  an  oHicial  d- clara 
tioii  j.ri  iiiu  .iiiL'  'li.i'  'li<  in  iiliiiiitij  of  the  lirauil  Diiihy 
.should  III  ji  sjii  ill  il.  Til'-  lattir  l<pll<d  that  this  -.cnt 
:.i!h'-ut  siiiinrj,  but  it  was  ih  (■(  ssar\'  that  t'nr  J-'nnih 
d".  '  I/I  HI,  nl  >hiii/ld  iiniLi  II  siitiihir  ill  I  liiidl  iiiii .  ()nAu;,'Ust  1 
//'(/  I' 1 1  mil  (in:  I  niini  lit  li  h  jru  phi  d  thi  di^iiid  uiiiltitahiii'^. 
*   S.c  IM-iaii  (irrif  ll<,<,k,  N...  7i>. 


Germany's  Hostile  Measures  *2ir> 

On  the  lollowin",'  diiy  Luxcmlmrg  ur/.v  occiipiid  Inj  Ctiinun 
troops. 

The  Priiiu'  Minister  thereupon  sent  an  cncr^'etic  j)r()test 
to  the  German  KnjjK-ror.  Tlie  C'lianedlor,  Hcthniaini- 
llolhve^,  re|)hed  tliat  the  niihtary  nicasurcs  taken  in 
Luxenil)ur<f  were  sokly  intentied  to  j)roteet  tlie  (icrinan 
trallie  on  railways  leased  to  (ierniany  from  possible  ntlnck 
by  the  French  army.  It  was  further  alkf^'cd  that  Fnnch 
troops  Juid  already  crossed  over  into  Lujretnbur<i  territory 
and  thenee  threatened  the  Certnan  frontier.  This  assertion 
is  dealt  with  exhaustively  in  a  Yelloic  Book  j)ul)Iished 
by  Luxemburg,  Of  great  imj)ortanee  is  the  Prime 
Ministers  eategorieal  denial  of  the  German  assertion  as  to 
the  violation  <f  neutrality  on  tlie  part  of  France.  "  Before 
Kuroj)e,"  and  with  the  approval  of  the  Chamber,  he 
ealled  the  entire  (irand  Duehy  to  witness  that  nobody  in 
Luaeniburg  had  seen  or  heard  <f  any  such  French  measures. 
Far  from  erossing  the  frontier  of  the  Grand  IJuehy,  the 
Frcneii  had  i)y  tearing  up  a  part  of  the  raihcay  dejjrived 
themselves  of  the  means  of  moving  troops  into  Luxemburg 
by  rail. 

^L  Viviani,  the  Prime  Minister,  issued  on  July  .'JO  a 
statement  to  be  eomnnniieated  to  the  British  i''oreign 
Minister  in  order  to  show  the  French  and  German  military 
prej)aratit)ns  res[)eetively  :  "  Although  Germany  has  taken 
her  covering  precautions  up  to  within  a  /ere  humlred  tnetres 
of  the  frontier  along  the  whole  front  from  Luxemburg 
to  the  Vosges,  and  has  advanced  her  covering  troops 
to  their  lighting  positions,  we  have  kei)t  our  troops  at  a 
distance  of  ten  kilo)netres  frofn  the  frontier  and  have  for- 
bidden them  to  advance  further.  .  .  .  Li  France  men  on 
leave  were  only  recalled  after  we  were  sure  that  Ciermanv 
had  taken  this  stc])  five  days  earlier.  .  .  .  Li  tiennany 
the  garrison  troops  of  Met/,  have  not  only  been  brought 
up  to  the  frontier,  they  have  also  been  reinforeetl.  .  .  . 
The  preparations  to  jilace  the  frontier  fort  resets  on  a 
war  fot)tinij  were  bcgim  in  Germanv  on  Julv  -.">  ;    \^e  in 


216        Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

Franci-  arr  now  also  alxmt  to  take  tlusc  steps.  ...  In 
Gt-rniany  rrscrvists  haM-  Ixt  n  i-alK  il  up  in  tms  ol'  thou- 
sands hy  iii(li\"itlual  notice  s  ;  tliosr  irsulinj,'  altroad  haw 
btiii  n  callitl,  and  rtst  rvc  ollict  rs  lia\r  hn  n  callrd  uj)  ; 
in  thr  mttrior  of  the  country  th<-  roads  ari-  harrcd,  and 
motorcars  may  only  circuhitc  with  spi cial  pt  rinits. 
This  is  tlic  hist  sta^'c  l»(  I'orc  mohih/ation.  None  of  thisi- 
st(  jis  have  \vi  l)ccn  tak(  n  in  France  The  (ierman  arniiis" 
advanct  (1  post>  arc  at  our  frontier  si^^n  |)osts.  On  t\V(^ 
occasions  yestt  r(hi\'  (i(  rman  patrols  in\adcd  our  territory. 
It  is  thus  clear  that  Fiance-  has  taken  no  a<:Ljrcssivc 
m<  asur(  s."  M.  \'i\  iani  nt  xt  ad\  ised  M.  C"anil)on,  tlu' 
French  amhas^ador  at  Berlin,  on  August  1,  that  Franco 
was  up  to  the  last  endeavouriuL,'  with  the  co-oj)erat ion  of 
(ire  at  Britain  to  nali/i-  Sir  Ivlward  (irey's  last  mediation 
j)ropoNals.  hut  that  Austria  was  placini,'  ohstacles  in  the 
Way  by  her  niohiji/at  ion.  "  (n  rnuinjf.s-  (illihalr,''  he  went 
on,  "'has  ahsolute  ly  forced  us  to  issue  today  a  decree 
of  luohili/at ion.  Lint'j,  lufini'  llic  liu.ysi<iti  rudltilizdtioti, 
e)n  .July  i".t.  Baron  %  on  Sehoe  n  announe-eel  to  me-  the- 
lorlhconun;,'  proclamatiem  of  the  Krii  i^^iitJahrzustntuL 
This  ste  p  has  now  been  taken  i)y  (ie  rmany  ;  imder  co\  e-r 
of  this  sere-en  she-  h(  i^MU  at  eiiie-i-  her  Teal  me>ltili/at  ion. 
Our  (it  e-re»- of  mohili/ation  is  the-ri  lore-  a  tuccssuri/  nu  asurc 
"t  SI  If  jni  M  r\  III  inn.  'J'he-  (io\ernnient  liave-  accompanied  it 
!»)■  a  jiroelaniat  ion,  si^uie  el  l>)'  t  he-  I'resielent  of  t  lie-  He  public 
and  all  tht-  Ministi  rs.  in  \\hie-h  they  e-\plain  that  ynahiliza- 
timi  I'  uiit  \uir,  that  nioliili/at  ion  in  the-  present  me)nie-nt 
is  to   l-"raiie(    t  h'    1)<  sf    in<  ails  of  |  iri  sc  r\  iuLf  peace-." 

Tin  (■•I'lnaii  Miiiliassador  at  Bnissi  js  intiinatid  to  the- 
Be  j;_'lali  ( I'  '\  I  liini'  lit  o(i  Aui:usf  .';  that  ( ii  rinaii  t  roops  /<<;(/ 
triti  ri  il  111  Ijnnn.  a  ml  di  li:  i  ri  d  an  ulliin-itum  tu  llir  i  fji  it  Ihnl 
//rs  (iii\  ,  1  mm  lit .  hu:  nrj  li  unit  tin  it  tin  In  in  li  :>.  i  ri  jiii  jxinn:^ 
fnr  npiiiitinn^  in  lli<  \ieiiiit\  of  (,i\it  anil  Namui-.  saw 
th'lii-'l\is  CMinp.  llrel  t'p  take  eirtaili  iiirasiiris  of  wliie-h 
th'-  f;i't  \\  a  ^  lo  e-ali  up(>!i  lli^  BiIl'i^ui  ( e  )\  <  rniiH  lit  to 
.tat-  within  s.  \.ii  lioiii>  wli'th-r  tli(\-  \V(  re  wiIIihl:  to 
Jiuilttiiti    ni    liiijiutii  (iirnnini/s  viihtuni  njn  i  utinn.s   niiunist 


Germany's  Hostile  Measures  *J17 

France.  In  case  of  rdusal  the  matter  wcmiM  he  scttUd 
by  recourse  to  arms. 

The  JJc-li^iaii  (ioN'cniiiiciit  rcjjlicd  that  "  they  (he  iiicd 
the  information  as  to  French  movements  unreliable  in 
view  of  the  formal  assurances  which  had  just  been  j^ivcn 
by  France  ;  that  lielj^uum  soletnulij  protests  a^'ainst  all 
viohilion  of  her  territory  no  matter  from  what  (luarter, 
and  xcill  knoxc  //ore  to  defend  'uit/t  all  ener'^ij  her  m  utrality, 
which  lias  been  nruaranteed  by  the  (ircat  I'ourrs,  antl 
more  espceiaHy  by  the  Kin<,'  of  Prussia." 

Tlie  assertion  in  (Germany's  uUimatum  that  the  French 
contemphited  mihtary  ojjcrations  at  (iivet  and  the  accusa- 
tion of  thus  threatenin*;  (iermany  are  absurtl,  as  (iivet  is 
a  French  town. 

After  German  troops  had  on  August  2  crossed  the 
French  frontier  in  several  j)laces,  M.  Viviani  lo(l<^fed  a 
protest  with  the  (ierman  (.iovernment  a<rainst  what  had 
thus  taken  place,  which  constituted  an  uni)rovoke(l 
viohition  of  tlic  frontier. 

On  August  ,'3  the  German  aml)assador,  von  Sehoeii, 
handed  the  Premier  a  connnunication  intimating  that  a 
state  of  icar  ivilh  France  existed  and  giving  the  following 
reasons:  ''German  administrative  authorities  have  had 
brought  to  their  attention  a  number  of  unmistakably 
hostile  acts  committed  l)y  French  military  aviators.  Several 
of  these  have  plainly  violated  Belgian  neutrality  ^^y  flying 
over  tlie  territory  (f  that  country  (!)  ;  one  has  sought  to 
destroy  i)uildings  at  Wesel  ;  others  have  been  seen  in  the 
neighl)ourhood  of  Eiffel  :  and  yet  another  has  thrown 
bombs  on  the  railway  at  Carlsruhe  and  Xureml)erg. 

"  I  am  (Mnjiowered  and  have  the  honour  to  int\)rm  your 
Excellency  that  the  Cierman  iMnpire,  in  the  face  of  these 
attacks,  considers  itself  to  be  in  a  state  (f  xcar  ti  //A  France 
by  reason  of  tlie  jneasures  taketi  by  tJiat  country.'' 

He  accordingly  asked  for  his  passjjorts. 

So  this  was  the  reason  which  Germany  elt'cted  to  give 
for  her  war  on  France.  One  may  will  lie  ast( Minded  at 
this  ru{)ture,  for  which  there  was  no  proV(icalio)i  :chatever 


218        Bkfore,  During,  and  After  101  !■ 

on  the  part  of  Franct.  The  (ii  rinan  (iovcrnnicnt  rclVrrcd 
t(»  FraiK't's  "*  nuasun  s."  \N  hat  had  France  done  but  to 
work  liand  in  hand  with  (inat  IJritain  and  Russia  to 
aitrt  war  ?  She  liad  dcc-Uirtd  that  slu'  would  respect  the 
ncutrahty  ol'  Hclf^iuin  and  had  not  niach,  (»r  even  |)rej)ared 
to  make,  an  attack  on  Cirrniany  throuj^di  Htlj^iuni,  the 
aUef^ati'in  of  whieli  is  dmionstrahly  a  piiri'  ifiicntion. 

M.  N'iviani  t  inpliatieally  contradictc-d  tlie  Ciernum 
ambassador's  statenunts,  both  to  his  laci'  and  in  the 
speech  in  tlie  Chamber  of  Deputies  on  August  4,  in  which 
he  announced  the-  state  lA'  war.  He  pointed  out  in  his 
spt  <ch  tlie  absurd  nature  of  these  pretexts,  and  declared 
that  "  no  French  aviator  has  at  any  time  tlown  over 
IJ(  l;.uuni  ;  no  l-'ri-nch  aviati>r  has  (.ither  in  liavaria  (»r  in 
any  other  part  of  (Germany  conunitted  any  hostile  act.'' 

TIh-  I*remi(  r  once  more  drew  attention  to  Cii  rmany's  acts 
of  apfjrcssifin  aLjaiiist  France.  Luxe  nibur;:.  and  IJc  l^ium. 
The  l-'reiieh  frontier  had  Ixcn  crossed  at  fifteen  points  ; 
rilles  had  been  disehar/jed  at  IVeneh  soldie  rs  and  custom- 
house oUiei  rs,  st\(  ral  beini:  kilhd  and  injin-ed  ;  a  (ierman 
nuiitar\'  a\iator  threw  three  bombs  on  Lune\ille  <»n 
AuL'Ust  .*{.  He  insfnictfd  the  ambassadur  at  lierlin  to 
|)r<itest  to  the  (■(riiian  (ioNcrmneiit  aL.'ainsf  these  hostile 
a<'ts,  sinei-  Nupplenx  lit  ed  b\-  others;  two  (ierman  patrols 
had  crossed  the  fiontier  on  Autjust  2  and  penetrated  ove-r 
fell  kiloiiiifres  into  the  interior,  reachin;:  the  NJllams  of 
.Foiiel;.  I.  \  anil  Haroii.  win  le  the  oHieer  in  command  shot  a 
|-"reiieh  sojdii  r  t  hioii^'h  t  he  forehead,  and  w  Ik  re  ea\alrymen 
s.  !/(  (1  Ik  l^^l  -,  (  I  e. 

]■  laliei  lia>l  < l(  1 1 lohst  labK'  eommitted  no  hostile  ;iet 
aiiil  had  eonsiiMit  lousl  \  icspfcfid  tlie  /.one  ot  tin  kilo- 
metris  bf  hiii<l  which  she  k- pt  her  troops  <  \(  n  alter 
mobili/at  loll. 

It    m.i\    br    III'  lit  ioni  <!.    b\-    t  Ik 
iKWspap' r    l'('r:^<irts   <ont  radict  (  ( 
t  hat     l'i<  iidi    a\  lator-^    had    bi  < n    ■ 
that     tiM      (,'rniaii     (io\crmniiit     admitted     an     attack    on 
I  r- iK  li  soldi!  rs  b\-  (ierman  j);itroU. 


way,  that  the  (ieriiian 
one  (.f  the  statiiiicnts 
(11    o\<  r   (i(rmaii\,    and 


Protests  219 

In  his  nussu^rc  to  I'arlijimcnt  on  Aw^nist  l  l*n  si«l( nt 
Poincare  declared  that  "  France  luis  Ixen  the  victim  of 
a  brutal  and  premeditated  attack  wliich  constitutes  an 
insolent  chalU'Uf^c  to  the  rif^hts  of  hiuminity.  .  .  .  France 
is  entitled  to  claim  most  solemnly  that  uj)  to  the  last 
moment  she  made  suj)reme  efforts  to  avert  the  war  which 
has  now  broken  out  and  for  which  the  Genmin  Empire 
must  bear  before  history  a  most  erushiuf^  responsibiHtij.  .  .  . 
France  represents  to-day  before  the  world  the  cause  of 
liberty,  of  justice,  and  of  reason." 

King  Albert  of  JJelt,Muni  appealed  on  Auf,njst  •!■  to  Great 
Britain,  France,  and  Russia,  as  guarantors  of  the  neutrality 
of  Belgium,  to  co-operate  in  the  defence  of  her  territory 
against  (ierman  aggression.  The  aj)peal  to  Great  JJritain 
contained  the  following  words  :  "  The  German  Government 
have  handed  the  Belgian  Government  a  Note  i)roj)osing 
a  benevolent  neutrality  which  will  i)erniit  a  free  passage 
through  Belgian  territory  and  promising  on  the  conclusion 
of  peace  to  preserve  the  independence  and  integrity  of  the 
kingdom  and  its  possessions,  but  threatening  in  the  event 
of  refusal  to  treat  Belgium  as  an  enemy.''  An  answer  within 
twelve  hours  was  demanded. 

The  Belgian  Government  categorically  rejected  this 
request  as  constituting  a  most  flagrant  violation  of  inter- 
national law,  and  lodged  a  ju'otcst  against  this  violation 
of  a  treaty  (Treaty  of  London,  18.'39)  to  which  Prussia, 
as  well  as  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Russia,  was  a  signa- 
tory. The  British  Government  called  upon  the  German 
Government  (August  -f)  to  withdraw  their  ultimatum  to 
Belgium  and  to  give  their  answer  on  the  same  day,  and 
deelareil  themselves  pre{)ared  to  come  to  the  aid  of  Belgium 
in  co-operation  with  France  and  Russia. 

The  German  minister  at  Brussels  informed  the  B(  Igiari 
Foreign  Minister  on  the  same  day  that  '"  the  (ic  rnian 
Government,  as  the  Belgian  (Government  ha\e  rejeetcnl 
the  friendly  proposals  made  by  the  Inipi  rial  (iovernmc-nt, 
will  be  eompelled  to  carry  out  by  force  of  arms  those  measures 
ivhicJi  are  necessitated  by  the  Frencli  menaces." 


220        Before,  Durinc,  and  After  1914 

i'uWIu'n,  in  view  of  the  (icniian  tlinats  to  pont-tralt'  into 
B<l^Man  territory  liy  lorcr  of  arms,  tlu-  Hritisli  anil)assa(lor 
prcMiittil  the  ultiiiiatuni  of  liis  Ciovcrmncnt  aiul  (Icniandcd 
that  Bfl;,Mum's  mutrality.  which  had  \)vvn  j^'uaraiitccd  by 
treaty,  should  he  risjKct( d,  lictlmiann-IIolhvejj  expressed 
his  surprise  at  (irt  at  Hritaiu  attaeliinj,'  so  nuieli  iniportauee 
to  the  ■'  .scnip  itf  paper  "  of  lH-i9  I  Sehloin  lias  the  ei\ili/.i(l 
World  heeu  ^o  duiuhfouiided,  seldom  has  its  sense  of  rij,'ht 
and  wron^'  heen  so  offended,  as  l)y  these  words  uttered 
hy  a  hading'  statesman,  and  the  actions  which  followed 
them. 

• ;,  We  are  reminded  l»y  these  incidents  of  what  the  upri^dit 
and  enli;:htt  ncd  Swedish  Chanctlltir,  Axel  Oxenstjarna, 
who.  with  (iusta\'us  Adojphus  and  Richelieu,  had  so  |,'reat 
a  share  in  Kurop(  an  polities  duriuL,'  the  Thirty  Years 
War,  wrote  to  his  son  iMik  :  '"  The  world  is  made  uj)  of 
dissimulaf  ion  and  falsent  ss  ;  tiiis  we  must  rceoi;rii/.c  and 
hear  in  mind,  that  we  may  not  he  dect  i\cd  '"  ;  and  to  iiis 
son  Jolian  :  "Are  you  not  aware,  my  son,  \cltli  ■n.Jmt 
littlf  uisiiorn  the  unrUl  is  '^lacrtud  ?  " 

Kvcr  since  Hismart-k  or;^'ani/cd  the  dialiolieal  (icrmanism 
and  tin-  hrutal  policy  of  mi;jht,  in  accoi-daiice  with  Maehia- 
velli's  ttachiiiL'^.  inf  (  rnat  ional  law  has  erased  to  exist 
in  the  minds  of  certain  lia(liii'_'  statesmen  and  professors 
in  (ii-rmany.  Triitschke  in  his  works  on  I\)Utilc  (ISTI 
and  IS'.U)  op(  Illy  propounds  this  d.  let  liiic  of  mi;:ht  and 
\  io|( nee,  which  unfortunately  has  lirou<_jht  him  mauN' 
admiriiiLj  <liscipli  s. 

A  Stat'  ealiliot  plid^rc  its  own  will  for  tuu'  s  fo  coriK' 
in  it^  relations  \silh  other  Stat(s,""  hi  says.  In  other 
Words,  int '  mat  h  iiial  tr'ati<s  are  iiot  al\\a\s  hinduii:  "U  a 
.Stat'-,    hut     mer<  l\     constitute    a    \ii!iin1ar\     ii  .t  lael  ion    as 

lon^f     as     file       State      deenis     sUell      listlletlon      to      he     to     its 

a(l\  ant  a;.'e. 

Trelt^ehke■s     dlselpje.     (ielelal      I  {i   III  ll  a  1(1  i .     also     d(  dares 

that   there  Is  no  l,'(  neral  int  iinat  ional  la\s.  aii'l  that   "  e\(  iv 
nation  wi'rks  out    its  own  coneepti"n  of  what   is  ri^'ht. 
Thus   it    wa^   in    (iur>uaiie'    of  a  (ieiiiian  made   po|ie\'   of 


Protests  221 

might   and    violrncc    tluit    (icriimny's    leading   stutcsmcn 
violated  Btlgiuin's  neutrality. 

One  of  the  foremost  exponents  of  the  law  of  nations,  the 
Frenehnian  Montescjuieu  President  of  Parlijunent,  his- 
torian, eneyelopa'dist  wrote  in  his  famous  work  L\spril 
des  Lois  (ITiS)  on  the  subject  of  war  :  "  Power  of  offcnee 
is  regulated  hy  international  law,  which  is  the  ))olitieal 
law  of  nations  regarded  in  the  light  of  their  relations  to 
one  another.  .  .  .  Law  in  war  is  based  on  ucctssitif  (ind 
an  zchal  is  slrictli/  jiisl.  If  those  who  guide  the  conscieuee 
of  princes  or  are  tlieii-  advisers  fail  to  abide  tin  reby,  all  is 
lost ;  and  if  one  be  guided  by  such  j)rineipl(  s  as  jionour,  pros- 
perity, and  utility,  rivers  of  blood  will  inundate  the  earth." 

It  may  also  be  apposite  to  recall  what  Frederick  the 
Great  ^vrote  in  his  Antimachiavvl  on  the  sanctity  af  trtatiis  : 
"  I  admit  that  there  are  deplorable  necessities  imdcr 
which  a  prince  must  not  recoil  from  breaking  his  treaties 
and  alliances  ;  but  he  should  withdraw  from  them  as 
an  honourable  man  by  giving  notice  of  his  intention  in 
good  time,  and,  above  all,  should  not  proceed  to  these 
extremities  unless  obliged  to  do  so  for  the  welfare  of  his 
people,  or  by  a  most  urgent  need.  .  .  .  Honour  and 
wisdom  demand  of  princes  that  they  shall  nliiiioushj  adJurc 
to  treaties  and  stricthj  observe  tJieir  provisions.'' 

Now,  did  the  welfare  of  the  (ierman  people  demand 
that  the  German  Government  should  violate  the  Belgian 
treaty  of  neutrality  ? 

In  his  Reichstag  speech  of  August  X  Bethmann-IIollweg 
declared  that  the  violation  of  the  neutrality  of  Belgium 
and  Luxemburg  was  necessitated  by  Germany's  "  ex- 
tremity,''' that  "  necessity  knows  no  law,*'  and  that  this 
is  ''contrary  to  the  dictates  of  the  laic  of  natiotis,"  but  that 
""  cve  knexi  that  France  stood  ready  for  attack -for  which 
reason  we  were  obliged  to  ignore  the  jirotests  of  the 
Governments  of  Luxemburg  and  Belgium."' 

But  he  adduced  no  proofs,  no  facts,  no  reports  or 
intercepted  documents,  etc.,  to  show  France's  intentions  ; 
it  sufficed  for  him  to  sav  :    "  We  knew." 


222        Before,  During,  and  Aiter  1014 

The  IinjKTial  Chaiictllor  admittctl.  liowt-vc-r,  that  the 
rights  (tf  tlic  neutral  States  had  heeii  infringed  when  ho 
reniarki-d  :  "  Tlie  wnrng  whieh  we  e<»innut  we  sliall 
endeavour  to  make  gtuul  hereafter. " 

(ierniany  a^ked  <>f  Belgium  a  "  IxnevoU-nt  neutrality  " 
and  a  free  j)assage  f(»r  her  armies  through  Belgian  territory. 
Thus  it  was  on  strategical  grounds,  to  the  detriment  (»f 
France,  that  (iirmany's  violati<tn  of  the  law  (^f  nations 
was  committed. 

Had  Belgium  consent i-d,  she  would,  as  the  Cicrman 
statesmen  ought  to  know,  jurself  have  ^■ioIatcd  her 
neutrality  and  the  Treaty  of  l,s;v.>,  which  pltd^rd  litliiiujn 
tint  to  i^nint  any  such  j)ri\iKgc  to  any  helligerent  Power. 
Had  Belgium  done  so,  she  would  thereby  have  g/i<» 
I'rdncf  the  n'iihl  to  let  her  armic-s  march  through  Belgium. 

It  caimot  he  made  sullicit  iit ly  clear  that  the  violation 
of  the  guarantee  of  Belgian  ntutrality  \vas  thoroughly 
l>ri  nuditiitid  and  formed  part  of  (iermany"s  stitilt'^icdl 
})ltin  in  (7/A<  (if':L(ir  u ///<  Frujivt'.  Lit  ut .  ("oIoik  1  Frohenius, 
in  his  l)(M.k  on  (u  rnuitn/'s  Fulrful  Jlniir,  putdished  sluirtly 
hefore  the  ^\ar.  sp(  aks  of  the  possihilit \'  that  "  (ierman 
troops  may,  hi/  iufrin<^in'j,  liiliiiiin  rirutrnlilif,  make  their 
iii\asi(.n  through  that  eoiuitry,  or  «  Kc  tIir(MiL,di  Swit/.er 
land."  The  in\asion  of  lielgium  and  of  LuMinhurg  had 
ni'thini:  whateNcr  to  do  with  the  alleged  knowledge  that 
the  l-"n  ikIi  (  nt  t  rt  aim  (1  a  similar  st  rat  euieal  plan,  or  that 
an  ai,'i"i  (  iiHiit  in  t  he  nature  of  an  alliance  hef  ween  Belgium 
and  (in  at  Britain  had  Ixi  n  diseo\(Ted.  \n  prnnfs  ha\f 
Ih  (  II  fi  irt  he  iiiiin<_'  in  tlirsc  respects,  and  tlnsc  staf<-ments 
are  iiMthuiL,'  hut  assertions  and  misrepresentations. 

In  (ieriiiaiiy  f  Ik  y  lia\  c  s.  .n^rlit  t  o  explain  aw  a  \  B<Igiunrs 
neutralif\-  and  tn  sh<>\\  <  .n  the  :iutliorit\-  of  e.rtain  Belgian 
(i')euiiient  s  that  Bel^'ium  herself  hroke  her  neutrality, 
and  that  (Hrnian\-  was,  tliii'ifore.  IuIIn'  entitled  to  t  leat 
her  as  an  en<  rii\  .  But  .all  t  his  has  Ix  ,  n  m  \  ain.  as  mav  he 
g.at  lier<  d  fl'  Mil  t  Ik    f(i||<  i\\  Mi;;  : 

In  it     \     \\.    ot   No\(riil>er  •.'<■.   I'.tll.  IIk    /\  iiln>^(  hi   Z-  ilhtu- 


Protests  2*23 

wrote  as  follows  :  "  \Vc  were  witliin  our  ri;;hts  in  iuvudinj,' 
Belgian  territory,  seeing  that  Brh^ium  did  not  (ihscrrc  ittr 
obligations  as  a  nculral.  That  this  is  so  is  charly  proved 
by  two  unassailable  documents,  one  of  which  has  hccn 
])uhlished  in  the  Norddciitsche  Allgcnninr  Z(ilHn<>.  'I'his 
doeurnent  proves  that  there  existed  a  strret  agreement 
between  lii-lgiuin  and  (ireat  Britain  for  cD-oj^ralion 
between  the  military  lorees  ol"  those  two  eoiintries  in  a 
war  against  Ciermany."' 

'V\\v  lielgian  (Government  publisjied  in  this  comiexion  a 
reply  stating  amongst  other  things  that  when  Colonel 
Barnadiston,  military  attaehe  to  the  British  Legation,  one 
day  in  January  I'.KXi  asked  (Jeneral  Dueariu-,  of  the  \Var 
Olliee,  whether  Belgium  was  pre|)ared  to  (!<•('(  iid  iier 
neutrality,  the  General  answered  tiiat  '"  we  are  prej)ared  to 
defend  ourselves  at  Liege  against  Gernianj/,  at  \omur 
against  France,  and  at  Anizcerp  against  Great  Britain."' 
Subsequently  several  eonversations  took  i)laee  between  the 
Chief  of  the  (General  Staff  and  the  military  attaehe  regard- 
ing the  measures  which  Great  Britain  should  take  for  the 
j^erformance  of  her  duties  as  guarantor. 

By  devoting  himself  to  the  study  of  this  tpiestion  the 
Chief  of  the  General  Staff  merely  jjcrformed  the  duty  of 
inquiring  into  the  measures  calculated  to  enable  Belgium, 
either  alone  or  with  the  aid  of  the  guaranteeing  Powers,  to 
re])el  a  violation  of  her  neutralily. 

On  ^lay  10,  1900,  General  Duearne  sui)mitted  to  the  War 
Onice  an  accoimt  of  his  conversations  with  the  British 
military  attache.  In  this  rej)t)rt  it  is  made  clear  in  two 
separate  ])assages  that  the  dispatch  o?  British  assistance  to 
Belgium  would  hccontingent  upon  theviolaiion  ofherterritori/. 
Besides,  there  is  a  marginal  note  which  the  XorddeutscJic 
Allgcmeinc  Zeitung  omits  to  translate,  lest  it  should  come 
to  the  knowledge  of  the  majority  of  its  readers  making 
it  unmistakably  clear  that  British  troops  xcould  not  enter 
Belgium  until  after  Germany  luid  violated  her  neutndity. 
The  course  of  events  has  am]')ly  demonstrated  the  wisdom 
of  this  anticipation. 


221        Befokh,  During,  and  Aitku  1914 

A  (lix'niiuiit  i)u!)lislu'(l  in  tlu-  \ardiltiitschf  AUiitnititic 
Ziitutic  on  ()ctol)rr  'J'),  r.»ll,  rcftrs  to  a  imctin^  l)c-tw('cn 
Cicntral  Jun;jl)hith  and  Colonel  Hri(l<;rs  which  shows  that 
tlu-  convtr^ation  ahmit  the  Hritish  i,niaranttr.  in  IIU'-', 
\vd  to  no  result.  Was  it  ncccsNary,  th<ii,  to  inroini  the 
Powers  that  Colonel  lirid^es  had  ^'ivt  n  a  j»i(ce  of  aihiee 
which  was  aj)j)n>vt-d  neither  l»y  the  liritish  nor  the  liel;jian 
Uo\(  rnnient  and  a;,'ainst  which  (iiiieral  Jun^'hhith  ini- 
rnediatel\-  prott^ted.  his  interlocutor  not  dei  iiiint;  it  Avorth 
while  to  insist  ?     'I'hat  would  have  }>een  al)surd. 

(urtnany's  hittntUd justifu-dium  thus  nci)il.s  upon  hirsclf. 

In  his  speech  hefore  the  !?(  ichsta;,'  on  Au^nist  1,  llHl, 
and  in  his  con\'ersation  with  the  liritisji  ambassador  on  tlu' 
h>llo\\iiii_r  da\',  the  (iennan  (haneelli'r  declared  that  the 
attack  on  Heltjiuin  was  solely  (liiidtal  hi/  st/uihuic  nir(ssity. 

(ierinany  cainiot  plead  <,'ood  faith,  seeing  that  she  only 
(l{srn:i  fid  tin-  (Innniicfits  witli  which  she  j)retende(l  to 
justil\-  her  \iolation  of  lielLriaii  neutrality  dflir  .v/zr  Iitid 
<h  lih(  rdtt  li/  hmLi  n  hi  r  tldllll  "hli'jutlidls.  The  di  x-uuient  s  to 
wjiieh  (ierniany  r<  tVrs  show  plainly  that  a  ilohiliidi  nf 
Ii(  I'jiuni's  H(  diriilili/  hi/  (itVfiidui/  av/.v  dnticipnttd  and  that 
no  a<:reern(  nt  had  i\'er  hi  <  ii  concluded  on  this  (piestion. 

A  spi  (ch  l)\'  M.  de  Hio«jue\  ille.  HelL.'ian  Piviiiii  r  and 
War  Mirusti  r,  at  a  secret  sittiiiL'  of  the  Parliament  in  I'.tlM 
\\\\\i  refi  rence  to  tin'  new  National  Srr\ice  Act,  shows 
plainK'  that  all  the  (i-  iinan  I'haneellor's  talk  of  a  secret 
alliance  li.twicn  HcIlmuiu  and  I-"rance  is  the  purest  liction. 
I)(  Iiro(|iii  \  ill.  "s  sp(  (ch  contaimd  the  loljowina  j)assaije  : 
■' The  r>a><in  foi-  tin-  ( io\(  i  inii<  lit  "s  Ai'iiiN'  Pill  is  the 
(i'rmaii  Army  Act  ot"  .lul\-  It,  I'.M'J.  This  Act  implies 
the  ^rcatist  strain  which  (iiiiiiauN'  has  impost  d  upon 
h'-rs.  If  Niiice  isTii.  Last  siumucr  \ni-  h  arnt  that  it  is 
mtiiidid  to  // /  Ihi  (iiniid)i  anni/  di!:d)i(-i  thrmrjh  liihjiinn. 
W'l  <>\si-  t  his  inform  at  ion  to  sc\(  ral  for.  i.jn  I'owms.  It  is, 
t  h'-refore,  incumlH  nt  on  u  >  to  .jo  to  t  li»    i-oot  of  t  he  m.at  t  (  r. 

■"I  f'-ar  no  \ioIatioii  of  oiir  nMiti-a!it\-  on  the  part  of 
l"raiicc,  hut  I  am  inform' li  that  tli<-  /■'nmh  (in: ,  unnnit 
/(</ .   //(///  <  'duju  Ih  (I  t'l  sliidi/  ihf    (ju,s>i,>ft   nf  ii    /■')!  nrh  cd;  dlict' 


Protests  225 

Ihroug/i  Bi'lgium  in  llic  en  nl  titiil  (uinuinif  sin, aid  Jail  t>, 
respect  our  terrilonj.  In  ordrr  to  prevent  ;i  lnf.ieli  of  our 
neutrality  we  must  speedily  })rtjmrc  in  both  dincliun.s. 
Tlie  greatest  danger  is  that  loreign  l'<»\vers  may  take 
possession  of  our  territory  lor  the  purjxise  of  protecting 
us.  This  warning  has  been  gi\-en  us  hy  scxcral  heads  of 
States,  and  as  hite  as  July  of  the  present  year  a  friend  of 
the  King  of  the  Belgians,  the  ruler  of  a  Stat<',  remarktd 
witli  eni])hasis  to  our  King:  '  I  gi\-e  lie  Igium  the  friendly 
advice  to  proceed  with  vigour  to  prcpurc  fur  sclf-dtj'tncf, 
for  the  miracle  of  1870,  when  Belgian  t<  rritoiy  remaimd 
inviolate  between  two  hostile  armies,  will  not  be  rejxated."  " 
The  personage  in  (juestion  was  King  Carol  of  Rumania, 

De  Broqueville  also  sj)oke  of  the  French  military 
measures  which  Helgiiun  would  have  to  take  into  aecomit  in 
considering  tiie  j^rotection  of  her  territory,  although  there 
was  good  reason  for  assuming  that  France  would  not 
infringe  her  neutrality  except  as  a  means  of  defence  against 
a  German  attack  through  Belgium.  This  was  what 
actually  took  ])Iace  a  year  after  the  speech  was  made. 
Germany  obviously  stood  to  gain  inlinitely  more  by  \iolat- 
ing  Belgian  neutrality,  because  she  had  more  rapid  means 
of  attaining  a  war  footing.  This  was  an  eventuality  which 
Belgium  had  to  reckon  with  and  was  bound  to  ])i-e]»are  for. 

King  All)ert,  in  speaking  to  a  Swiss  corresjjondeiit  of  the 
litrnir-Bund  at  the  end  of  March  \\)\:>,  uttered  the  f..l!ow- 
ing  words,  which  contirmed  the  sentiments  which  the 
Belgian  (iovernment  had  ali'eady  cxpressi'd  :  ""  Xtutrals 
are  very  sensitive  to  any  attack  or  reflection  on  their 
attitud(\  That  is  {juite  natural.  I  can  assure  \du  that 
I  and  my  ccumtry  have  always  j)rior  to  the  war  nhstrial 
icith  the  utfnost  voiiscicntioii.snrss'  the  dulir.s  (>/  luulrallli/ 
prescribed  hij  tJie  (ircat  Poxcers. 

"Yet  we  are  only  doing  what  Swiss  citizens  would  Iia\'e 
done,  had  anyone  sought  to  infi-inge  the  neutrality  of  tlnir 
country.  Our  pas.siondte  love  of  indcptudtiict'  sn  ins  to 
have  surj')rised  the  enemy,  and  seems  to  havi-  bnii  made 
an  excuse  for  the  assertion  that  we  oursehcs,  In/  rtdsoii  of  d 

v 


220   Before,  Dirinc;,  and  After  1914 

prtridiis  (lortttntnt  nith  atlur  Poxctra,  utrf  lu  hUinu\for  the 
inji{u<>ttn<nt  af  our  tieuirdlitt/.  Onit'  inore  I  say  :  Tlurt'  is 
no  tnitli  in  tliis  asst  rtion.  " 

With  rr^'ard  to  the  alU-;,'ati(>ii  that  Franci'  was  ready  t«) 
attack  (i«  rniany  throu«,'h  IUl;i[iuni,  and  that  Friiu-lj  re^'i- 
nunts  Wire  thtn-  when  the  war  broke  out,  it  may  he  of 
int(  rest  to  rejxat  wliat  a  IJel^'ian  hiutc uant  and  artist,  who 
took  part  in  the  war  for  s(  \»  ral  months,  rehiteil  to  the 
writer  (iwstaf  Ilellstroin,  who  puhhshed  his  statement  in 
iJii^tri^  \i/ht(tr  (N(»venil)er  I'.Hl).  "The  Cierinans,"  he 
said,  ■■  plead  that  if  they  had  not  broken  the  neutrahty 
thi  IVf  iieli  would  havi-  done  so.  Did  the  Fnnch  do  it? 
No,  sir.  wluii  the  war  l)roke  out  the  French  had  one,  I  sui/ 
line,  uii.strdiiU-  (irtni/  carjjs  tinht  kihivutrts  frufn  the  licl^idn 
frontier.  Had  they  had  more,  had  they  thou^dit  that  the 
(iermans  would  ha\'e  marched  throii^di  liel;,Mum,  they 
Would  have  had  t<  n  army  corps  up  thrre,  and  in  that 
case  C  jiarh  roi  und  Mons  would  not  have  lonktil  as  they 
look  now,  an<l  H(  Iiiium  would  ha\'e  had  a  ^reat  many 
towns  sale  in  la  r  liatids,  and  our  wictehrd  eouiit  i-\  nim 
would  lia\(  had  no  need  to  tramp  the  roads  and  Ix  14  a 
crust  of  hrtad.  I{ui,  as  it  was.  ./o///v  uv/.v  siuUU  nUi  (i}ili'j,ed 
til  trdJisjn-  //.(  'kliiiU  (ij  his  iiuiin  linilt/  fr'iiii  tdsl  to  north. 
This  tool:  time,  and  it  was  \sc  po^r  dt  \  ils  who  had  to  suffer 
1"( »r  it ,  We  and  our  e< •unl  rv." 

( )n  t  lie  sulij<  et  of  t  lie  siipp(.s((l  a^jri  t  iiM  nt  with  l"",nL,'land 
till  ]{(  liiian  said:  "" 'i'lir  (iirmans  made  the  excuse  that 
:li  hi,il  Mcril  Iridlits  :uth  iln'JthnoL  \\v  ha\f  s(  <  n  all  the 
W'll'id  lias  s(  (  II  ho\\  much  tli(  MnL'lisli  \\  i  ic  ahlr  to  hdj) 
u--.  \\  <  Will  kn<  w  <  iuhf  \iars  aLjo  that  Enillond'  s  dr/nif 
'.inolil  710I  Ik  (riiifiil  inilil  :edr  loot  lirohi  n  mil.  and  that  it 
tak(  -  six  moiiflis  1m  lore  lli<  \  can  put  an  arm\  worthy  of 
till-  lialii'-  into  the  tl'  Id.  And  if  we  had  a  si cii  t  ariaiiLTe 
mi  lit  w  it  h  I-'.n:.'Iand  I  i^'ht  \  1  ais  a'jo.  w  |i\  did  w  <  not  snto 
it    that    wt    had  a  pio|.i  i-  army  lp<  fori-  a  ti  \s    months  aL,'o  ? 

TIk-  (i<  rman  (l«(iiil\  (lothiin  wrolr  (in  flu-  lierliner 
'r<rj,lililt  III  DrcifiilMr  i'.Ml):  •'  That  Hi  I^ium  wouhi 
hi    aiiioiij^r    till     numhir    of   our    opjxinints  -ee  hnexc  Jor  ci 


Protests  227 

fad  years  afio,  allliouvrli  the  details  of  tlic  Franco  A unlo- 
Ji(l<>ian  a^'rccnu'uts  were  unknown  to  ns," 

But  liow  (lid  they  hnow  this  ?  Xolhitifi,  ahsalutrh/ 
nothiriffwns  known  of  any  IJcluiun  enmity  towards  (icrinany. 
Had  it  existed,  doubtless  li(l<^Muin"s  military  orj^'ani/ation 
would  have  been  more  ellieient.  The  much  advertised 
agreements  with  France  and  (ireat  liritain  amount  in 
point  of  faet  to  nothin^^  at  all,  as  I  have  shown  above. 

No  ;  there  is  no  real  <,'round  for  the  (ierman  accusations 
against  Belgium  ;  they  are  merely  des|)erate  attempts  to 
defend  (Germany's  violation  of  the  eoimtry's  noitrality, 
which  is,  and  ever  will  be,  a  shameful  blot  on  her  rei)uta- 
tion  this  is  now  realized  in  (iermany  unless  fneans  can 
be  found  of  'unputiw^  to  Iiel<j,iuni  -adrli/xe  des{<^ns  a<^ainst 
Gernumi/. 

The  Cierman  deputy  Dr.  F.  Naumnnn,  in  a  widely  read 
and  applauded  address  given  in  Berlin  on  January  10, 
191;),  made  the  following  characteristic  conmients  on 
Belgian  neutrality  (I  quote  from  the  Berliner  Bnersen- 
Courier)  : 

"  When  one  utters  the  word  '  neutrality  '  one  is  neutral 
only  in  the  sense  that  one  awaits  {nur  ini  Sinne  Alnvartens) 
the  sha])ing  of  events. 

"  Had  not  the  preposterous  settlement  of  1S39  taken 
])laee,  whereby  a  State  was  permitted  to  wage  war,  main- 
tain armies,  and  build  fortresses  whilst  itself  remaining 
immune  from  attack,  the  course  of  action  in  regard  to 
Belgium  would  now  have  been  extraordinarily  siiujiU'. 
We  should  merely  have  said,  as  13ismarck  did  in  lS(;t)  to 
Hanover  :  '  Will  you,  or  won't  you  ?  "  As  it  was.  the 
British  had  an  excellent  excuse  for  u}iholding  the  validity 
of  the  '  pajier  '  of  1889.'" 

So  Dr.  Naumann,  too,  regards  a  treaty  as  a  mere 
piece  of  })aper  :  to  him,  in  other  words,  there  is  no  such 
thing  as  international  law. 

Some  have  maintained  that  Belgium  had  no  valid 
neutrality  treaty  at  all. 

The  German  professor  Dr.  Dernlnug  and  a  pro-German 


228        Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

pn)tVssor  iii  Aiiurica,  Mr.  liuri,Hs^,  luivi-  thus  attempted 
to  provr  that  lkl«:iuiirs  luutrahty,  ^aiaraiiteed  by  the 
Treaty  i4'  1S."{1»,  has  ccaNtd  to  hi-  ^'uaranteed  hy  tlie  Powers 
sinee  the  tiuaranttr  Treaty  ol'  1S7»»,  enaett-d  in  eoiuuxioii 
with  the  Franco  Citrniaii  War.  t  xjtiri-d  in  l.sT'J.  "'Sinee 
then  neither  I'ranee  n»»r  tlie  (iernian  I'^injtire  has  renewed 
tlie  ohl  Treaty  of  1  .s;{l»,  nor  lia\-e  tluy  eoiuludtd  a  Ire^h 
one,"  says  15ur;,'ess  in  atteinjttin<,'  to  j)ro\t  that  Belgium 
had  no  ^'uaranteed  neutrality  at  alh 

Th<'  Treaty  of  ISTO.  howevir,  |tro\ides  that  ""  after  the 
e\j)iration  of  this  ]u  ri<>d  [twelve  months  from  the  ratiliea- 
tion  (if  jKaeeJ  litli^iiii/i's  hidt  pcndtrict  and  ncutrnlity  sjiall 
eontimie,  as  heretofore,  to  he  hased  on  Art.  1  of  the  Treaty 
of  the  Five  Powers  of  April  17    1 1».  lS.*i'.>."' 

Dernhurt,'  simply  omitted  this  t(  rmination  of  the  treaty 
and  has  thus  Ixcn  LTuilfy  of  a  palj)al)le  falsitieation.  Such 
are  tlie  methods  which  have  hicn  cnijiloyed  in  (icrman 
(piartcrs  to  seek  to  justify  the  outraucous  \iolation  of  the 
neutrality  of  lielj;ium. 

In  a  collection  of  essays  on  Dcutscjihnul  uiul  <l<  i  !!<//- 
krit^  (from  Zi  itsrhrift  fur  I'ulki  rrtc/it,  I'.Mt)  a  numlu  r  of 
(icrman  <icii  ntists  ha\<-  come  forward  to  d<  |'(  nd  (i(  rmany  s 
])<'sition  in  th'-  wav.  and  alto\c  all  lur  riiihl  tu  cuimnii  tin' 
:t /■'///;,'  which  t  he  Chan cillor  admitted  in  regard  to  nel>,'ium. 

Professor  Kolih  r,  in  his  essay  on  Si  If  <h  finci'  and 
A  ( '<//7.7////,  deeland  that  the  \io|.it  ion  of  Pel;,'ian  neuf  ralit  y 
was  a  t  ypical  (  \am|>le  o|'  an  act  of  '•  jii.^l i I'mhli  st  If  dt  f(  tnt\" 
as  I'rance  was  read\  to  h  t  her  troops  march  throULTJi  t  he 
(■oiiiitry.  lie  iiier.  ly  r<  peats  what  the  (  hancellor  said  on 
the    siit,j<et.    \sliieh    is    a    d<  moii-t  lahle    untruth,    and    in\ 

pT'  misS'  s   siieh   as   t  111  SI    the   I  iloot   o|    s.  ll    (1,  rene<    is  of  eoinse 
(  as\  . 

KoliNr  eoiitiinls  that  niluium  had  Mo  ii^jht  to  oppose 
th'-  jiassaL"  ot  the  (i-iman  t  loops,  that,  oii  t  h(  cont  iar\\ 
she  i,N;jlit  In  liii:  I  1,1  i  I II  I  i  I  III  III  t  (  p  \\  aid  off  t  li<  pi(  iii(dit  at  (  d 
hreach    of    iiiutralit\     hy     I'rane'    I       F\  i(i<  lit  l\     he    is    not 

UWal-      of    1{.  l'_'ium's    nhlii'ill  inn    to    [(fllsi      sUcll    passage.         He 

;." "  s    "ll    to    explain    tjiat     PeJinnm    had    an    ii  iidi  1st  andmt,' 


Protests  229 

with  France,  and  repeats  the  uneonlirnud  or  disjjroved  asser- 
tions that  French  troops  were  taken  to  Hcl^riinn  and  crossed 
tlic  (Jerman  frontier  ixfore  the  declaration  of  war,  etc. 

The  same  is  ane<,'ed  l)y  another  author,  NeUe,  in  an  essay 
on  Die  bd<lischc  Fra<ic,  and  he  says  that  the  town  of 
Krquehnes  was  occupied  l)y  French  troops,  which  was  not 
tlic  case  ;  it  is  also  asserted  that  the  late  French  War 
Minister  Pic(]uart  made  a  journey  throu^di  Hel^^uum  to 
inspect  the  fortresses  on  the  Meuse  and  that  French 
aviators  had  flown  over  Hel^nan  territory  all  sullicient 
reasons  for  annullinuj  the  tnafy  of  neutrality  (rf.  declara- 
tions of  French  and  Hel<rian  Govermnents,  j)p.  'Jl.')   'J*JO). 

Nelte  admits,  jiowever,  that  there  are  eminent  experts 
on  international  law  in  (Germany  who  ha\c  prhidchj 
expressed  their  disaj)j)roval  of  the  plea  of  sell'-del'ence. 

When  the  fjreat  Dutch  writer  and  thinker  F.  van  Feden 
in  an  oj)en  letter  to  his  Cierman  friends  eritici/.ed  tlu- 
attempts  which  have  been  made  in  (ierman  ([uarters  to 
convince  foreifju  countries  of  the  le^^itimacy  of  (ierman 
warfare  in  Beloiuni  and  of  the  rejirisals  a^^ainst  the  oj)posi- 
tion  of  Relo'ian  civilians,  and  when  he  declared  that  ""  the 
curse  of  the  evil  deed  is  that  it  fjoes  on  creating  evil,"' 
mcanin<T  by  the  evil  deed  the  violation  of  Belt^uan  neu- 
trality, ^V.  von  Blume,  professor  of  jurisprudence  at 
Tiil)infjen,  wrote  in  re])ly  an  article  in  Dd.s  firosscrc  Dcutsch- 
land  (November  28,  1911)  entitled  Die  hchj^iscJic  ScniraUtiit 
nnd  rvir.  lie  says,  to  bcfjin  with,  that  even  (Tcrmany  has 
her  "  well-intentioned  men,  who  thouirhtfully  shook  their 
lieads  over  (nir  march  into  liel^ium.""  and  explains  that  "  it 
is  not  the  same  to  us  how  honest  peo|)le  rej^ard  us,""  and 
tliat  "  wc  have  always  relied  too  much  on  our  clear  con- 
science and  our  trusty  sword,  and  luwe  not  sutlieiently 
taken  into  account  that  in  international  relations  a  <^(i(i(} 
rcpuiaiion  is  an  clement  of  sfren<^fJi."  Hut  in  this  case,  he 
says,  "  we  are  vainly  strui^o'lino-  aLjainst  eahunny,""  and 
he  proceeds  to  show  that  Germany  was  entir(  ly  within  her 
right  when  she  allowed  her  armies  to  mai-ch  into  Belgium, 
and  that  the  country  itself  violated  it  •  luutrality. 


230        Before,  Diking,  and  After  101 1 

Seldom  Ims  a  Cicriiiaii  professor  used  such  an  aj>paratus 
of  kariH-d  advocacy  t<t  aiuiiliilatc  an  opponent  as  lilunu' 
docs  in  tliis  article,  hy  which  hi-  seiks  to  safe^nianl  Cier- 
niany's  '*  j,'o<»d  reputation."  The  nadir  may  jud<,'e  for 
himself  from  the  folIowin<,'  summary  of  his  article  : 

The  Germans  occupied  Hel<,Mum  hy  force,  Ik-  says, 
hecausr  thry  wrre  refused  a  j)assa<,u-,  althou;,'h  they  were 
entitled  to  it  hy  the  ri^ht  of  mccs.sili/.  "  There  exists 
amon;,'  the  nations  a  ri^ht  of  necessity,  which  tran.ifdrtn.s 
tridtits  into  scraps  <if  paper  and  rescinds  them  lor  the  sake 
of  a  hi^lur  ri'^ht.  This  and  nothinj^  clsi-  was  meant  l)y  the 
(i(  rman  Imperial  Chancellor  when  he  spoke  the  famous 
word  which  our  enemies  have  (juoted  with  hypocritical 
indi<,fnation.*' 

It  will  he  seen  fr(»m  this  that  '"  scrap-of-j)aper  "  cynicism 
has  now  Ix come  part  and  parcel  of  (i*  rman  ethics  I 

'■  International  law,"  says  Blume,  "  rests  on  the  funda- 
mental couceptii>n  of  intcrnaliotial  Jilld'usliip.  Ne»  neu- 
trality can  ^M\'e  anycdie  the  ri<,dit  al\\ays  and  in  all  cireum- 
stane<  s  to  he  in\iolalile  in  the  fa<<-  of  the  neiL,'lil><>urs" 
(xticMiitN  in  war.  .Iiist  as  tlii-  ututr.il  .State  luust  ^^'ive 
an  asyhuM  to  troops  who  wisli  to  liLrht  no  more,  it  //;(/.s7 
in  certain  eireumstanees  permit  li^ditini,'  ariiii(  s  to  march 
through  its  territory.  77/e  riuht  of  nt  cissittf  is  ijic  liiiilar 
ri'jiit.  Ihit  it  is  a  sine  fjua  rion,  ho\ve\cr.  that  the  .State 
<l<inandin<_:  the  riu'lif  of  passa;^^-  ///^/.s7  hci/ond  tlouht  be  en- 
iliiilid  in  a  jii.si  ilijiiuc  ai^ainsl  attacJc.  and  unahlf  to  -.card  off 
tilt  nHiirL-  I  icijil  III/  s(ttit)L!  fiiot  on  !hi  jnrtiiin  l(  rritory." 

Tills,  of  eoiir--<  .  is  t  he  point  at  issue,  hut.  in  spite  of  t  he 
(•out  I  nl  h 'IIS  of  Hlnni''  and  innuiiK  r;ilil«-  ot  hi  rs  that  (iii- 
man\  u;is  m  this  po^itp-n.  tlMiv  i  \ists  I  i,  [k  at  it  onei- 
more  //o  i:  nil  nil  :ihiili:ir  ><\  liane<  s  plan  to  .attack 
(itrinan\'  throii^'ji  Ht  |;_|niin.  "i'  of  ){(  l:_'iuni  s  sccii  t  alhane<' 
\sith  I'lanec  and  r',nt.'l.ind.  This  l:as  hiciiii'-  a  liMd  idea 
\sith  tilt  (iirnian  (I'l.nd.i^  ..I  tin  hr-acli  >  >\'  n<utiaht\-, 
and  1^  r'p'.itfd  (piitc  iih  chanie.ilK  .  Hhnm's  riAilatii^n 
<■!  \\<>\\  l>' li/iiini  inlnnL:'d  In  r  (iwn  U'litiahtv,  li<>\\  '"  m 
(■••!lMiiin    with    ( i<  iinaii\  "s    (iMnins    sli<     jinjinnd   tin    luir 


Declaration  of  War  231 

against  Germany,^'  how  in  Hcrlin  "this  was  suspcclcd  with- 
out possibility  (jfahsolutc  j)r()()f'  when  the  CharK-clIor  ex- 
posed France's  ussuincd  plan  of  inarehinf^'  thnm^'h  Hcli^'iiim 
— "  all  this  has  now  at  len^'th  been  hrou^'ht  to  li<,'lit  throii;:h 
the  archives  of  the  lielfrian  General  Staff."  lie  speaks  of 
the  celebrated  papers  concerning;  the  conferences  betwe(  ii 
the  British  military  attache  and  the  Bel<i:ian  (General  Staff  in 
11K)(>,  etc.,  which  have  been  fully  proved  not  to  ini|>ly  any 
prcj)arations  of  war  a<,'ainst  (Germany  (see  |)p.  *2'JL'-'JL';}). 
Bhnne  procci-ds  :  ''  I  am  (piite  j)repar<(l  for  the  next 
retort,  that  Belgium  look  prccuulions  vurch/  in  tin-  (-ml 
of  her  being  ullacked  by  Germany.''  He  must  be  well  aware 
that  this  was  the  case,  and  yet  he  says  that  "'  we  knoxc  that 
Beltjium  made  every  preparation  for  the  oj)erati(»ns  of  the 
allied  armies." 

A  spirit  of  utter  fanaticism  seems  to  have  obscured  the 
reasoning  faculties  and  blighted  all  sense  of  justice  in  the 
mind  of  this  eminent  j)rofcssor  of  jurisj^rudencc. 

But  it  is  not  enough  that  Belgium  should  herself  have 
violated  her  neutrality  ;  this  cul])able  country  has  further 
offended  against  her  obligations  as  a  neutral  by  not  having 
armed  snjjicienily  !  One  can  hardly  believe  one's  own 
eyes.  The  learned  "  Professor  der  Reehte  "  teaches  as 
follows  :  "  It  is  the  duty  f)f  a  neutral  State  to  be  so  -dell 
armed  that  its  neutrality  do(s  not  become  a  danger  to  its 
neighbours.  A  State  which  has  not  jH-rfornu-d  this  duty 
does  not  deserve  to  retain  its  neutrality.  Its  neutrality 
becomes  a  xeortJiless  seraj)  of  paper,  if  the  others  eonsider  it 
obnoxious  (I)  .  .  .  That  Belgium  tiy/.v  not  suljieiently  ])re- 
pared  to  ward  off  a  hostile  attack  has  now  l)een  ]iroved  to 
the  consternation  of  that  deluded  country.  .  .  ,  No.  m\' 
neutral  friends,  neutrality  is  not  a  house  which  otlu  rs 
have  built  for  you,  that  you  may  reside  in  comfi>rt  tluitin, 
whilst  others  must  pm'chase  their  existence  daiK'  \vitli  the 
sweat  of  their  brow,  .  .  .  If  a  neutral  State  fails  to  secure 
its  safety  by  its  own  efforts.  wliiKt  trust iuLT  to  its  neutrality. 
it  becomes  a  danger  to  others,  for  it  niu^t.  /'//  a  puliey  aj 
allianees.  make  gootl  what  it   lacks  in  defensive  slniiutli. 


232        Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

.  .  .  \Vlicn  IJt  li:ium  iHL'lfftt  d  lu-r  arnuiuunts  she  hccumo 
(Itpcrulciit  on  tlu-  will  d"  Irt  iiri^hhours.  \VIhii  she  <  iitrred 
into  ntL'<>ti.itii>n-;  with  oii<-  n<  iirlil'our  confcrniiii:  lur 
attitude  in  case  of  war  she  fai!(  tl  ^Mos^jy  in  \uv  duties  to- 
wards the  others,  ^^'llen,  in  tiiu-.  she  was  allitd  t(»  one 
she-  (iMild  not  on  the  outl)riak  of  war  claim  to  oeeupy  a 
neutral  jm. sit  ion.     Shr  tlurdnj  Jurfcital  lur  tu  ittnilitif." 

Tills  reasoning;  eoin}H  K  the  conelusinn  that  liiliiiutn 
/.v  rt  '<j)"'isihl(  for  lu  r  war  with  (it  rniany  and  consetjuently 
for  I'liiLrlands  int(  r\(  nl  ion.  which  so  tiilarmd  the  spin  re 
of  WAV  hi/  ixiiUct'niii  lo  raist-  a  .sulficitnl  <irnni  In  jircitut 
(iirnianif  fmrn  iniadinu  fi<r  Itrritcry  (ind  ociupi/in'^  tfic 
iiiunlri/  ! 

HelL'iinn  had.  as  a  matter  of  fact,  adojjted  a  new  system 
of  national  deftiice,  hut  had  nnl  Imd  limr  [n  cHVvy  it  through 
in  I'.tH.  .She  had  not  !»(•(  n  alt<>irether  nei^lectful,  hut  she 
had  d<  lay<  (i  I  he  r(  f'Tin. 

That  the  war  came  so  sudihnK  was  hai'dly  l^  liriunrs 
fault  :  if  was  (iirmaiivs  will.  |{ut.  sujiposin^r  that  t  he 
IK  \s  Hi  JLrian  schr  me  of  national  di  t'l  nee  had  he(  n  fully 
coiiipleted,  dors  an\ou<-  think  that  (iirmaiiy  with  h'  r 
prijiaredri'  -s  \',,y  war  and  her  colossal  armies  would  not 
lia\e  i,'i\.  n  HelL'iiMM  short  shrift  wht  n  she  h.id  made  up  her 
mind  to  march  t  hroULfh  ?  \\"e  saw  how  in  t  he  init  ial  st  aLT"  "^ 
ot'  the  war  the  (i(  rman  armies  smashed  the  i-esistance 
of  t  he  l''reneh  and  ex-n  t  hieat  (tied  Paris,  so  t  hat  t  he  l-'ii  iich 
( io\  <  rmuent  \'.  as  eon)  [  m  lied  for  a  t  ime  to  mo\c  to  Hoi"deau\. 
In  r-futatioii  of  the  "  r<  liaMe  information"  as  to  t  he 
ploj.  (  t .  (1  |'|-.  neh  ;m1\  aiiee  t  hioii;_'h  HelL'ium  ajonu'  'he  M(  use 
\ia(ii\'t  N,;mnr,  it  i .  of  t  h-  l'I' at  est  inf  i  ri  st  I  o  n.  .t  (  \\  li.it 
a  (li- 1  in'_'Ui  di' (I  .Switlish  militar\'  wiit'r-.  Cajitain  .1. 
II.'.IIlTi  n.  \\rot.  m  his  ■-,  li,  -,  ,,\'  aiti«l(N  on  "The  W  oild 
War"  in  tie  r>  \  n  \".  /■'•■nim  on  Noxinilnr  7.  I'.Mt.  11<- 
poHits  out  that  till-  (i'lmans  on  Au^'u-^t  1 '.»  Ik  L,'an  th'' 
aftaek  '-n  Namur,  and  <in  An^'UNt  '_'()  s,.ni'(!  ]ii<paiid  to 
h'  L'lii  t  li'  <!'  ei  .i\  (  opi  I  at  i<  .ir  .  ani  I  t  hat  it  w  a  -  onl  \'  al  ion  t  this 
tiiii'  that  till  IVaiieo  j'litish  a!ni\  w.is  iiaiK  aloni,'  the 
'  .1   '  •  ni    li  ■  '111  !'  r.       ■■  Tli.it    I  !i.     Alii'   ,   \M  II'   ih  it    1 1  ail\    -oi  'IK  r 


Defenders  of  Violation  of  Neutrality    ii.33 

may  well  excite  surprise.  The  French  sliould,  if  the  trans- 
port arran^'cincnts  had  from  the  Ix-^'inninj,'  been  directed 
towards  IJel^num,  have  been  ready  before  th<-  (iermans. 
From  this  wc  may  draw  two  conehisions  :  Tlmt  l/if  Frrnch 
did  not  coiitcinphilc  (in  ddvanrc  iJirouoli  liel'^iutn  (it  the  l)c<jin- 
nin<i  oftJu'xvar,  and  that  the-  main  (i(  rman  onshiught  lhr(Mij,'h 
that  country  came  as  a  surprise,"' 

lint  what  is  the  use  of  all  tliese  sopliislical  arguments  and 
mij)roved  assertions  al)out  Hil^Mum's  alle^'ed  breach  of 
neutrality  when  Helhniann  Ilollwe^'  (■\j)r(ssly  deelarcd  that 
the  violation  of  lielLjiunrs  neutrality  was  a  xironii  and  was 
a  measure  of  "  self-defence,''  and  when  the  Chanctllor  did 
not  even  hint  that  to  his  knowled^fc  lieluiiun  would  fi^'ure 
as  Germany's  enemy  and  had  a  secret  alliance  with  Kn^'land 
and  Franct?  '.'' 

We  have  besides,  from  a  German  source,  an  unc()m- 
promisintf  explanation  of  why  Germany  is  wairins^  this  war. 
It  comes  from  Maximilian  Harden,  who  in  his  review  Die 
Zukiinft  (October  17,  IIM  t)  expressed  his  ()j)inion  in  the 
followin<f  terms  : 

"  It  is  not  (lil(ii)t.st  our  oxen  xcill  that  we  lia\-e  conuiiittcd 
ourselves  to  this  trenuMidous  ach'cnture.  We  have  not 
been  forced  into  it  by  surprise.  ]l'r  xcillcd  it  \sr  had  to 
will  it.  Miolity  (Germany  does  not  jiropose  to  a|)i)ear 
before  the  tribunal  of  KurojK'  ;  we  recomii/.c  no  such 
tribunal. 

'■  Our  L;rowth  in  jjower  will  create  new  laws  for  Kuroj)e. 
//  is  Gcrnuinij  xc/io  .strikes. 

"  Germany  ^\•a<,n•s  the  war  in  tlu-  un^hakable  eoiu-ietion 
that  what  she  has  aecomplislu'd  entitles  her  to  a  vmre 
prominent  plaee  in  tite  xeorld  and  more  eltjow-rooni  for  ii^r 
activities. 

•"Spain,  Portuo-al.  Holland,  France,  and  (ireat  Britain 
lonn'  aLjo  took  possession  of  and  eoloni/.ed  enormous 
stretches  of  country,  the  richest  \n  the  woi'ld.  X<*w 
(ierman\'"s  houi-  has  struck,  and  she  must  take  up  her 
dominant  position  in  the  world  I 


234        Before,  During,  and  Ajter  1014 

With  ri-;,'ar(l  to  Hrlj^Muin.  Harden  says  that  IU•^■tT  was  a 
justcr  war  wa^'t d  than  that  in  whit-h  nilf^ium  has  hctii 
cTushtd,    imr    has    a    war    iMV    hciii    a    sinircr    of   greater 

blfssill;,'    to    the    i'oli(|U(r(  (1    jxoplr  I 

\\  lu  II  lirli:iuin  (•\|)r(  s>.ly  stated  that  slie  wouhl  not 
jKTinit  the  j)ass;i<,a'  ul'  the  (iernian  troops,  and  was  boinul 
to  act  thus  uiuhr  her  treaty  of  neiitrahty,  Ciermany's  in- 
terN(  iition  with  armed  foree  heeanie  an  ait  ol"  barbarism. 
This  methoil  iff  tcrrltiii  a  nation  into  war,  whin  it  hail 
doiu-  no  wron;:  and  sho\vn  no  hostih-  intentions,  antl  this 
(h  hhi  rate  violation  of  a  treaty  whieh  had  been  hekl 
absohitely  saen  d  and  had  been  accepted  by  civihzed 
nations  as  part  and  parcel  of  tiuir  code  of  I'thics,  have 
ev<  rywhere  caused  the  «:reatest  depression  and  indignation. 
'I'he  duty  of  observing'  p<iliiic(d  twuirdlifi/  cannot  tie  down 
the  neutral  eiti/ens  of  neutral  countries  to  an  ethical 
ndttniUtu  that  is,  in  otlur  words,  to  indifference  and 
nonchalance;  they  ha\"e.  on  the  contrary,  expressed 
themselves  stronL'l>'  aL'ainst  this  \i<.|ation  of  the  rijjhts 
of  otlKTs  and  the  exaL'^erat ed  and  ruthless  method  of 
puni-^hin^:  till-  j)art  ieipat  ion  of  the  civil  jiopulatiou  in  the 
drfciiec  of  th'ir  country  aL'ainst  the  usurper,  (ierm.any's 
j.'o(.(l  name  \\a>  indeliblv  tarui^lud  b\-  the  assault  on 
Iieli:ium,  .and  no  appe.al  to  (iermaiiic  kinship  has  been 
capable  of  propit  iaf  iiiL,'  other  nations  of  Ciermanic  stock. 
'I'll'-  sriisc  of  justiei-  and  hum.anify  is  stronger  than  the 
SI  lit  iiiK  lit  of  kinship,  and  this  l.ittei-  disappears  entirely 
\sh<ri  unjust   .iiid  erui  1  acts  .are  eouunitted. 

Hi^'ht '  oii-iM  ss  will  II.  \(  r  toliiate  iiijustic<.  \\h(re\er 
it  ?i).i\'  I"'  «'"nimit  t  <  (1.  Tlic  \iiiee  of  eouscj.  nee  uuist 
ne\(  r  1)1-  still'd  or  ^il.  ikv  d.  A  soj.  imiK-  cri.'ietid  treats' 
has  be.  II  traiiipi'd  utid.  ll' n  it .  ;ili(|  (i.rmaiiie  peojil.s 
out  ide  (i.liM.in\  eaiiliiit.  b'  c.'.U  .1  tlii\  colli,  of  the  s.aiiie 
stock.  (  ndois.  this  p.ihc\  .if  imrlil.  ho\\.\-.  r  much  fluv 
iiia\  .adniU"'-  ( i'  rii!.iu\'s  ;id\auc.  .1  eultun-.  TIh  \'  L'ric\  c 
o\  I  I-  thi>  f.ill  fii'iii  th'-  hii'li  pl.i.'  wliich  (i.rui.'Ui  culture 
li.i  .  ...cMiiiid.  b::t  lli'\  .-ii-.  not  .lit  1 1^,'.  I  li.  f  siin.riM.l,  for 
ui    |st',l    ;sii.l    IsTs    I)iniu;irk    \".  a  ^    \  i.t  iuu/.i  d    b\-    tin     s.nuc 


What  Forced  Crkat  Britain  into  NVah     '235 

policy   of   initrlit,    and    the    Sclilcswi^rcrs   an-    to   this   day 
grojinin<,'  under  its  sinister  doniinancc. 


What  Fokckd  CiuKAT  JiuriAiN  into  tmi:  Wau 

The  GtTiiuin  Foreij^Mi  Minister,  Ilerr  von  .Ja;,'()\v,  instniet<-d 
his  ambassador  in  London,  Prince  Liehnowsky,  <>n  Au;,nist  1 
to  inform  Sir  Jvhvard  (irey  that  ""the  (i(  rnian  army 
coidd  not  he  exposed  to  a  French  (lUack  thraK^h  Iitl<>ium, 
as  to  the  j)hinnin^'  of  which  he  had  ahsohitely  incontro- 
vertihU'  evi(h'nee.  (Jermany  was,  t lurch iic,  eompelh-d 
to  (Usrcildrd  Ji('l<:,huii\s-  niuinditij,  svv'mv^  tiiat  to  (Jcrmany 
it  was  a  ynuttcr  of  life  and  dcntli  to  prevent  tlie  French 
advance." 

On  the  same  day  Sir  Edward  Grey  was  advised  tliat 
German  troops  had  entered  Belgian  territory  and  that  Lie^^'c 
had  been  called  upon  to  surrender  by  a  small  German 
body,  which,  however,  was  repulsed. 

In  view^  of  these  events  the  British  Government's 
request  tliat  Germany  should  resjK-ct  Iklijium's  neutrality 
was  changed  into  an  ultimatum,  which  the  British  ambas- 
sador was  to  present  to  the  Chancellor  (»n  August  4. 
This  ultimatmn  drew  attention  to  the  German  (Govern- 
ment's threat  to  Belgium  to  resort  to  force  of  arms  if 
Belgium  did  not  grant  a  free  passage  to  (icrman  troops, 
and  to  the  fact  that  Belgian  territory  had  l)een  violated 
at  Gemenich.  ''  In  these  circumstances,  and  in  view  of 
the  fact  that  Germany  has  declined  to  give  the  same 
assurance  respecting  Belgium  as  France  gave  last  week 
in  re|)ly  to  our  request  made  simultaneously  at  Berlin 
and  Paris,  we  must  rei)eat  that  r(M|uest  and  ask  that  a 
satisfactory  reply  be  made  to-day.  If  this  is  not  done, 
you  are  instructed  to  ask  at  once  for  your  pa^^[)ort^  and 
to  say  tliat  His  Majesty's  Gov(M'nment  feel  bound  to  take 
all  steps  in  their  power  to  u]))i<ild  the  neuirtdilii  cj'  litl'jimn 
(Did  the  ohservanct'  of  a  treat i/  to  which  (Germany  is  as 
nnich  a  ]iarty  as  ourselves." 

Great   Britain's   policy   could   vnf  ,/',■/:•,■   h,'rn    ^fijUrrvf   in 


23G        Befork,  During,  and  After  1911. 

the  face  (»f  the  afjj^rtssivf  attitude  (»f  (icrmaiiy  and  in  view 
of  all   the   ptTNisttnt    (fforts    \\hieh    her    l-'(»r«ii:n    Minister 
as  Well  as  tho^e  of  Fiane(   and  Hu^Nia  had  made  to  j(r(  \ent 
the  St  ri)ian  eontliet    t'li'tn  d»  \«  lojiini:  into  a  <:i  ncral   war. 
The  Austrian   and   (it  rnian   anll)as>^ador^   in    London   wrre 
eertainlv  t'nilty  of  a  |)i((T  of  jioor  |»olifieal  jud^nnmt  wluii, 
as  rtjiorted    hy  M.    I'aul  Canihon  on  .Inly  '_'?,  tluv  lirnily 
rtckont-don  l-ji^'land's  neut  rality.asdiil  t  lutiirnKinCiovcrn- 
iiK  nt  up  to  the  last  nioiiunt.     'I'o  judL'f  fntni  Sir  Edward 
(io'^clu  lis    account    of   the    iinjirtssidn    which    tlu-    British 
ultiiiiatuni  created,  it   s((iiis  that    H«  thniann-HoIlwc^'  lost 
his    ht  ad    coiupletcly    and    suddenly    realized    the    dan^'cr 
which  now  threat*  lied  (i(  rinany  throuuh  her  (iovcrinncnt's 
hold  hut   unwi^<    policy.      The  dreamt  of  war  with  France 
and  Russia  wa^  now  throui.'h  (ireat   I5iitain's  inter\'ent ion 
ahout  to  h« conie  a  :cnrl(l  -uor  and  (it  rmany  would  no  loniTcr 
he  ahle  to  hriiiLT  her  o|)|ionentN  to  their  knt  (  s  and  dictate 
terms  of  jxace  ;is  (juickly  as  she  ha<l  hojitd  to  do.      This 
ou;/ht  to  ha\f  Ixcn  fort  seen  h\    the  (  haiiei  llor.      Instead, 
he   was   taken    h\'   surprise   ami   o\(  r\\  In  hm  d    with   auL'er, 
hut  he  als(  1  show  <  (I  how  little  he.  in  ci  uMiiion  with  Tn  it  schke 
anil   H<  rnhardi,  nsptcted  tin-  sanctif\-  <if  trt.itits.      \\'hei\ 
he    ciMild    no    loUL't  r    hope    for    the    ad\antaL'e    of    ket  pin;,' 
I'inLdand  nt  utral.  he  ft  It  that  he  mu^l  at  1<  a-^l  hold  Ettiihiud 
rt sj)iifisll)li    Inr   till'   :i.(ir     a    w.ir    which    had    already    heen 
di  clan  tl  to  l»i-  till    stiiiL'L'Ie  of  ( it  rm.'ini^m  au'aiiist   Sla\  isni 
and  to  ha\f  hi  t n  created  li\-  the  .S.  ilio  Austrian  eontliet  ! 
In    th<-    (  liance||(ii"s    s[),.ch    l)(fi.ri-    tli<-     Hiichstaij    and 
t  liroUL.'h'-iit     till      I'n  ss     it     was     the    same    st<.r\   :      ""  The 
(ierm.ati    nation    h.is    Ihiii    I'l'reed    t  hiMu^jh    (ir-at     Hritain 
t..    fiL'ht     f-r    its    III"..""      'I'his    is    til,-    st,K'k     phras,     which 
ri  eiir^  t  im<    and  a'_';iin.      in  Iii^  spi  i  eh  m  tin    |{<  ielisf  atr  <  >n 
I),  e.  i,il„  r  *J.    I'.tll.    Hf  llim.-iim   Ih.lhs.  u'   d.  el;ir.  d  :     ■■(iitdt 
liritiihi    ami    /i'?/v.w//    tni'iflni    hiiir   In  I'^ri    (iml   luid    uiitu    tin 
Vi  •-  ji'iusilnlttij     \''<v     this     eat  ast  11  iphc     wliidi     has     iiiijnilid 
V.\\v<  >\>'    and  tin    liuni;in   rae.  .' 

Win  tl    a   (iiliiiaii    liianiristci   .e/.iin-t     I'.iiL'l.'Uld    <'n    aeeiiimt 
of    !)<  r    part  i'lfi.if  I'Mi    in   f  hi-  w  m-  I':iil   Ix.n  s<  nt   out.si^rmd 


What  Forced  (iitKAT  Britain  into  War    237 

by  the  loadinj^'  li|,'hts  of  tlu-  Icjiriicd  world  (.1'  (icrmaiiv, 
there  was  puhhslicd  in  reply  u  manifesto  si},ni((l  hy  a  lar^'c 
number  ol'  Hritish  men  of  seicnec  who  ddcndi d  (ir<at 
Britain's  policy.  Its  main  points  were  to  the  following 
effect  : 

"  Up  to  the  very  last  there  was  a  widespread  wish  to 
preserve  Great  liritdin's  neulrnlili/,  j)rovided  that  it  could 
be  done  without  dishonour.  But  (icn/unii/  Itcrsdf  made 
this  inip()s\sil)le. 

'"Our  stron^H'st  fcelin^fs  and  our  most  \ital  interests 
ari'  alike  hound  up  with  the  neutrality  of  Hel^'ium.  Its 
violation  would  not  onl\'  destro}'  the  independence  of 
Beljfium  ;  it  would  undermine  the  whole  foundation  which, 
on  the  whole,  makes  it  possible  for  a  State  to  be  neutral. 

"When  Ciermany  j)rei)ared  before  our  eyes  to  break  the 
treaty  to  which  we  and  Ciermany  were  joint  si;jnatories, 
and  when  wc  saAv  that  she  exj)eetctl  to  lind  in  iMi^dand  a 
cowardly  aec()m])liee,  then  hesitation  became  imj)ossil)le 
even  to  the  most  peaee-lovin^j  Kn^Mishman.  Bel(,Minn 
appealed  to  the  pledged  word  of  England,  and  England 
kept  her  word. 

''  We  deeply  deplore  that  under  the  sinister  inlluence 
of  a  miHtary  system  and  its  lazvless  dretnns  of  conquest  the 
country  which  we  once  honoured  now  stands  revealed 
as  the  connnon  enemy  of  l''.uroi>e  and  of  all  nations  who 
respect  international  law.  We  must  eontimie  tlie  war 
we  have  begun.  To  us,  as  to  Belgium,  it  is  a  defensi\c 
war,  a  xear  for  J'reedo})i  and  peace." 

The  manifesto  is  signed  by  IK;  l\nglish.  .Scotch,  and 
Irish  scientists,  amongst  whom  are  no  fewer  than  lour 
Nobel  Prize  winners,  namely,  Lord  Kayleigh,  Chancellor 
of  the  I"ni\-ersity  of  Cambridge.  Sir  W.  Kamsay,  ju-ofes^or 
of  chemistry.  Sir  J.  J.  Thomson,  jjrofessor  of  phy-^ies.  and 
Sir  Ronald  Ross,  ]M'ofessor  c)f  medicine. 

Exactly  the  same  opinion  is  expressi'd  in  a  work  by 
six  members  of  the  Oxford  Faculty  of  Modern  lli-^tory 
entitled  JVhy  ]Ve  .he  at  War  (translated  into  Swedish), 
in  which  the  authors,   E.   Barker,   II.   \\'.   (.'.   Davis,   etc., 


288       Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

dtt'lari'  that  tiny  air  n<>t  lluiiiscK  is  |Hilitii'iaiis  and  hcloiij,' 
to  clifft-rtnt  srli«>ols  ot"  t  h(»Uf,'lit .  Tluy  prtKciil  very 
systematically  to  (U  st-rihc  tlu-  most  iin|)ortant  rvmts 
prt-Cfdin^  tlu-  war,  the  alliaiu-cs  and  annaint-nts  which 
followed  alter  1  ST  1 ,  the  Siihian  crisis,  the  ne<j[otiations 
l)etwe«ii  the  I'owers,  the  new  Cierinan  policy  of  ini^ht, 
etc. 

*'  History,"  say  the  authors,  "  will  doubtless  iiscribe 
the  outbreak  of  war  hetwein  Great  IJritain  ajid  Germany 
to  the  development  of  the  Helgian  (juestion,  and,  we  an- 
conlideiit,  will  judge  that,  had  it  not  l)een  for  the  gratuitous 
attack  made  on  a  neutral  country  by  Ciermany,  war  with 
(ir«  at  Britain  would  not  have  ensuiil  on  August  l-,  I'.Hl. 
We  know  now  that  there  was  no  chance  of  the  efforts  at 
mediation  pro\ing  successful,  for  (Germany  had  made  up 
her  mind  that  they  should  not  sucei  < d.  Nothing  but  a 
(ierman  in\asion  of  IJclgium  could  have  coiuincT'd  the 
Hritish  that  Cierman  diplomacy  had  (legem  rattd  into 
roJ>berv.  Kngland  is  not  lighting  the  (iei'man  people  ; 
she  is  fighting  the  political  system  which  at  the  presint 
time  the  (icrman  lMn|)irc  rrpnsc  nts." 

Although  the  immediate  cause  of  (ireat  Britain's  intir- 
veiif  ion  in  t  lie  War  of  1  '.•!  1  was  t  he  :  iolalion  of  the  tuulrdlili/ 
(if  Ihliliuni  and  the  l/iittitinid  positinn  af  Frdiicc,  she  had 
another  m(»tive  for  j>articij)at  ion  in  the  war,  that  of  .s<//- 
(Itftncc  n'j^dinst  (iirtfunn/'s  iiroxiinn  paxKr.  This  motive 
has  not  been  rcpudiafid  in  l-JiL'land,  and  hence  it  is  unfair 
to  spiak  of  British  li\  po(ris\-.  The  7'////e.v  winte'  at  the 
bcgiiuiiiig  of  thr  war  :  "'  \\  <  arc  not  gojui^r  to  war  for  the 
sake-  of  Si  rbia.  we  arc  not  going  to  war  for  the  sake  of 
Russia.  We  ai'-  going  to  war  for  th<'  Mil.f  oj dur  auii  (.list- 
I  nrr.  'llii-  saim-  papi  i-  on  March  S,  I'.tl."),  d(  clari d  that 
■'uliin  I'inL'Iand,  to  rid.  (  m  In  r  jiliiL'tii  NM-rd.  iiifir\cned 
in  di  fi  iici-  of  i{i  lL,'iiini  wi-  km  w  \  i  i\  \m  II,  in  keipiuL!  it, 
that  silfintirist  has  i_'i.nc  hand  in  hand  with  honour, 
with  justici.  and  with  pit  \  .  \\\\v  did  we  ^'Uaraiit  i  r  the 
niuti.!lit\-  of  Bi  !i.'ium  '.'  l<>r  an  iiii[ii  rious  nas.in  of  m  If 
intiri.t,   lor  the   reason    which   has  al\va\s   made-   us   resist 


What  Forckd  (iiuM  Britain  into  \\.\n      tm 

the  rstal)lisliriuiit  <»!'  any  (ircat  I'owt  r  i(\(  r  ;i;^.uiisl  our 
cast  coast,  lltrr  von  Hit hniann  IIollwtMf  is  (jintc  ri^'lit. 
Even  if  (i{  rniany  had  not  invaded  Hdj^iuin,  honour  and 
interest  would  have  united  us  ^vilh  I'Vance.  \\\  liad 
refused,  it  is  true,  to  <;ive  her  or  Russia  any  hiiuhn^'  jjlcd^M- 
up  to  the  last  moment.  ^Ve  had,  ho\vev(  r,  lor  many 
years  j)ast  h-d  hotli  to  understand  that,  if  thev  were 
unjustly  attacked,  they  mi<,dil  rely  upon  our  aid.  To 
pillory  us  in  such  a  position  of  infamous  isolation  has 
lontr  been  a  darlinj^f  dream  of  the  \\'ilh<Imst  rasse.  I 
would  materially  advance  (iermany"s  scIk  nies  of  world- 
empire,  to  which,  as  she  clearly  sees,  the  d<struetion 
or  the  humiliation  of  Kn<fland  is  an  indispensahli-  |)rc- 
liminary."' 

(ireat  Britain  had,  with  re^'ard  to  France,  fjood  reason 
to  participate  in  the  war.  Sir  Edward  Grey  declared,  in 
reply  to  the  German  neutrality  projiosals  on  .July  .'JO,  that 
Great  Britain  could  not  stand  aside  whilst  France  was 
being  crushed,  and  that,  if  France  were  in\"olved  without 
having  shown  an  unreasonable  sjiirit,  Great  Britain,  too, 
would  be  drawn  in.  The  British  Government  thereupon, 
on  August  2,  gave  the  French  (Government  the  assurance 
that  "  if  the  Gtrm^;? y/<r/ comes  into  the  Channel  or  through 
the  North  Sea  to  undertake  hostile  operations  against 
French  coasts  or  shipping,  the  British  lleet  will  giw  all 
the  jM'otcction  in  its  power." 

This  assurance  was  given  because  the  French  lleet, 
according  to  an  agreement  with  Cireat  Britain,  had  been 
transferred  to  the  Mediterranean,  so  that  it  was  not  able 
to  protect  the  coasts  of  France. 

If  Great  Britaiii  had  remained  neutral,  (icrmany  would 
in  all  j)robability  soon  have  defeated  France  a  c-onsum- 
mation  relied  upon  in  Ciermany  pursuant  to  a  prtc'oneei\e(i 
strategic  j)lan— but  this  (ireat  Britain  would  not  p(  rinit  ; 
hence  the  Franco-British  Entente. 

That  (ireat  liritain  was  bound  to  suit  lier>elf  aeti\(ly 
to  the  acticMis  of  France  and  Russia,  both  in  the  eoniiiuMi 
European    interest    and    in   her   oicn.    was    made   clear   by 


2iO        Before,  During,  and  Ai^er  1014 

Mr,  As(jiiith  as  well  as  hy  Sir  Kdwanl  (iri  y  in  tluir  spcochts 
of  Alienist  .'}  «;  : 

**  If  Fraiuc  wt-n-  hiatcii,"'  said  Sir  Edward  (Jrcy,  "if 
shf  lost  lu  r  position  a^  a  (inat  Power  and  l)rcanio 
subordinate-  to  tlu-  will  of  a  J'uucr  i^rtdfcr  than  liirsilf, 
if  Hfluiurn  fell  undrr  the  sain<'  (It)niinat in<,'  inllm-ncc  and 
then  Holland  and  tin  n  Denmark,  would  not  (irt  at  Hritain 
feel  that  there  Would  he  a  eonmion  intenst  a;,'ainst  t  he 
uiuneasurtd  a^'^frandi/enient  of  the  l*ower  which  sou^^dit 
to  brinj,'  ahoiit  this  result  ?  The  country  nuist  realize 
the  full  niaj^nitudc  of  the  dangers  which  wire  hanijin^j 
«)Vcr  \N\stern  ]-!uroj)e.  (irtat  Hritain  could  not  wait,  and 
at  the  (  iid  of  such  a  war  she  could  not  prcNcnt  the  whole 
of  the  \N'est  of  luirojK-  fallin;,f  under  the  d(»niiiuition  of  a 
sin^'le  Power."' 

.Mr.  .Vsijuith  pointed  out  that  (irt  at  liritain  was  liuhtin;,^ 
■"to  \indicate  prineijiles  of  \ital  inij)ort  to  ci\ili/.at  ion  : 
the  sanctity  of  soKiun  int(  rnational  ol)li;jat  ious.  and  the 
rifjht  of  small  nations  not  to  he  crush< d  h\  the  arl)itrar\' 
will  <.f  a  stroiij,'  and  o\  (  i-m.ist  (  riiiL.'   Power." 

(ircat  liritain"s  :i7/o/e  jn,.si!ii,ii  was.  moi«  o\(r.  thriah  h(tl 
hy  (icrmany's  assault  on  l'"iance  and  P(  Ifium,  for  this 
miL'ht  lead  to  (i<  rman  masjiry  of  the  Channel,  which 
(ir(  at  Pritain  could  lu  \'er  jxTiuit, 

\\  Ik  n  .Sir  I-'.dward  (ir(  \"  on  .Iul\'  .*{(>  L'a\e  his  r<  pl\  to 
Jilt  hrijami  Ilollwi  a  on  the  siil»j(  ct  of  tlii  m  utralit\'  offer, 
intimating  that  (inat  Hiitain  would  a<-t  on  thi-  sid(  (.f 
Pi  I'jimii  .-111(1  I-'raiici  if  thi  sc  countiii  s  \\,\f  atta(-ki(l.  tln- 
(iirm.'in  (  hatiei  ll"r  ouijht  no!  to  ha\c  lucn  so  siirpMscd 
;uid  aiiL'r\  as  h<  was  \\  hi  n  Su'  l".d\\aiil  (eisch.  n  siihmithd 
(.icat  liiitam  s  lilt  iiiiat  inn  on  Aui,'Ust  l.  'l"hc  uud/itnli  >■ 
I't  liil'^nnit's  111  nil iihl II  uii.s  hi  (iiiiil  liritiini  tin-  (-(irmr 
stori<-  Jiof  onl\'  of  iiif  I  i-nat  iwii;il  j;i\\  Init  alM>  ^f  the  wlhilr 
p"htie;il  iahiK-  of  Wi^tirii  |-"ji  1' i|  )■  •,  aiid  w  a  >  thi-  ii  --nit  nt" 
a  sfruL'L'l'  which  (ii'  af  Piitam  had  eairi'  d  I'li  I"!'  (-1  iituiii  s 
to  jiiii  1  nt  <i  luilitdii/  (in  (it  I'nUir  Irmii  il'iiimnitni'J,  thr 
Chun  in  I. 

P'thmaiiii   Ih'Ilwi!.'    oiiLiht    to    ji.i\i     rorrs(  ,  ii    this.    I'.ir    it 


What  Forced  Great  Britain  into  War    21-1 

was  by  no  means  u  secret,  ('spceially  as  (icrmany  had 
embarked  on  a  colonial  policy  for  her  surplus  population 
and  had  of  late  become  a  ^reat  naval  Powt  r. 

lie  ouprht  to  have-  borne  in  mind  Hich<li<u's  wonls  in 
his  Political  Testament:  '' Wy  foresioJit  one  can  n  adilv 
avert  many  ills  which  can  only  be  cun-d  with  dillieidty 
once  they  have  developed.  .  .  .  lie  who  looks  tar  ahead 
does  nanght  with  preci|)ifati()n,  because  he  has  had  auiph- 
time  to  wei<j;h  his  acts,  and  one  rarely  does  wroni,'  when 
one  has  deliberated  maturely  beforehand." 

To  say  that  Great  Britain  'aUDited  war  with  Cienuany  to 
disarm  this  danjrcrous  eoinjK'titor  is  undoubtedly  an 
unjust  eharg(\     Everythiiif,'  poes  to  prove  the  contrary. 

That,  on  the  other  hand,  when  war  seemed  inevitable, 
she  ran<,'ed  herself  by  the  side  of  France  and  Russia  with 
an  eye  to  her  own  interests,  there  can  l)e  no  doui)t,  for 
her  zvhole  existence  xcouhl  have  been  threatened  by  (ieruiany's 
supremacy.  And  this  supremacy  would  prove  a  very 
great  dan<?er  indeed  were  Germany,  as  was  feared,  to 
obtain  a  firm  footing  in  Holland  and  I^elLiium  or  on  the 
North  Sea  coasts  opposite  England.  That  (ireat  Hritain 
now  intervened  on  accoimt  of  the  violation  of  the  neutrality 
of  Belgium  cannot  be  set  down  as  an  act  of  duplicity. 
This  intervention  was  thoroughly  justilied  by  her  duties 
as  guarantor,  and  she  had  two  good  reasons  for  gojn^'  to 
war  with  Germany.  On  this  point  no  (it  rman  statesman 
ought  to  have  been  in  doubt. 

Certain  well-known  historical  factors  make  England's 
policy  perfectly  obvious.  Her  aim  has  always  Ixcii.  as 
a  matter  of  life  and  death  to  her,  to  ]irevent  a  (Jreat  Powc  r 
from  obtaining  the  mastery  of  this  north-we^tt  rn  corner 
of  Europe.  When  Louis  XIV  made  up  his  mind  to  con(|uor 
Belgium  and  subdue  Holland,  England  joined  Sweden 
and  Holland  in  a  Triple  Alliance  (1668)  for  the  purpose 
of  helping  Spain  to  retain  Belgium,  a  desion  ^v!lieh  in 
the  main  proved  succcssfid.  In  the  Austrian  A\  ar  ot 
Succession  (1741-48)  England  joined  Austria  in  order, 
with  the  aid  of  Holland,  to  combat   her  enemy   Era  nee 

Q 


242        Before,  Dirinc;,  and  After  1014 

when  that  Powt  r  invadrd  A^l>^t^ian  Brl<;iuni,  aiul  hv  the 
Pt-aco  of  Ai\-Ia-Cliai>(  IK'  Kiiu'laiul  stcurcd  tlu*  restoration 
of  H«  l;,Muiu.  Later  oil.  (hiriiij,'  the  (ireat  Hevohition, 
En^'Iaiul  (»nee  rn'>r<-  had  to  opposf  I-'ratice  in  HeI<,Muin.  tlie 
RepiiliHe  ha\in^  oeeuj»ie(I  the  country  in  IT'Ji'.  I'lanee's 
indrfat  iLTalilf  elKiny,  the  younLT^r  Pitt.  aiHioiine((l  to  the 
(io\(  rrnnent  of  the  Repiihho  that  "  (ireat  l^iitain  would 
n<  \(  r  j)(  riiiit  that  France  should  arhitrarily  arrogate  to 
111  fv,  !t"  t  hi-  riijht  to  hreak  up  the  poht  ieal  system  of  lOuropi-. 
and  the  Hritisli  (government  would  lu  n h  r  look  on  with 
indiffi-rence  whilst  l-'rance  made  herself  the  mistress  of  the 
Xitherlands  and  t  he  arbiter  of  I-'.urop<"s  ri^lit  sand  liberties. " 
Hecintlv,  however,  a  rcdl  j)ri)(if  \\;\^  eonie  to  liijht  in  con- 
tirruat  io:i  of  the  (h-clarat  ioii  of  the  Hrit  ish  (io\"erninent  tiiat 
it  was  (Germany's  \iiiIation  of  Hel^ium's  neutrality  \\hich 
di  ti  rmini-d  thiui  in  fa\"our  of  war  with  (ierm;in\".  This 
e\  idi  nei-  is  suj>plied  1»\-  certain  information  pid)lish( d  at 
the  hi  t:inninu'  of  Api'il  1  '.•!  .">  in  t  he  Lahmir  Louli  r.  t  he  or^.-m 
of  tji<-  I  full  j)(  lull  nl  I\njlish  Lrjimir  I'mii/.  to  the  fnljowin;^' 
effect  :  ■"  W'e  thiid<  that  we  are  ri^'ht  in  sa\inL,'  that  a  week 
before  (ireat  Britain's  ulfiuiatum  to  (ii  rman\'  the  majoritN- 
of  the  nll•mher^  of  thi-  ('.aliiui  t  were  oppii-~e(i  to  Hiitish 
inter\<  lit  imi.  W  (  kiinw  on  tin-  hiL'li'  ^t  pi.^Nilile  aulliMrity 
that  e\en  will  II  We  stood  mi  the  t  hn  shold  of  war  tlw 
Premier  had  in  his  jiaiids  the  ri  siMnat  ion  of  ^ix  memlxrs 
of  the  (iovernmi-nt .  Mi-.  Asijuifh.  Sir  IMwaid  (iny.  ami 
\sliat  wt-  ma\-  call  the  Imperialist  Lfroup  in  the  ( io\-cnHni  iit 
favoured  (inat  IJritain's  int  er\  ent  ion  on  aeeoimt  of  the 
Flit  I'lif  e    with    |-'raiiee    ami    Hussia    and    the   seeri  t    pled'jes 

of    the     I'orel:.'!!     ()iril-e.        The    otlliT     Lfrollp     was     ojjpi.ve.l     |o 

such  int  er\-ent  ion.  //  (iirninni/  Innl  nnl  nuntli'd  in!n 
Hil^nnn  It  is  junhnhli-  tlnil  ii  himt'  iirniip  uitliin  tin  ('iihi/nt 
•icinlil  havr  /rsi'j)iiil.  and  that  .a  {'oalition  (,o\(inment 
would  h.'i\e  l)een  foriii'  d.  foT  li  1 1  •  Ts  fr.  .m  I.oid  I.aiisdowne 
.'Uid  Mr.  Hollar  Law  to  Mr.  \s,jMitli  show.d  that  t  lir 
Liiperi.'ilist  s  could  reckon  on  th'ir  siijiport.  Th,  (iiJirjiin 
nrii^i'it)  nf  liihjinv}  rntr.trli'l  t'niir  <>u\  of  the  s|\  ri  <-alei 
traiit,    into    supjx'rters    of   tip-    w.ir    partw      Lord    .^^>rIl•\ 


Causes  of  the  World  War  213 

and  Mr.  Joliii  I3uriis  persisted  in  th(Mr  attitude  and  nsi^'u*  «1, 
and  they  were  joined  l)v  a  member  of  the  Minist iv,  Mr. 
C.  P.  Trevelyan/' 

Mr.  Lloyd  (ieorj^e,  then  Chancellor  of  the  Iv\eli((|uer, 
declared  in  an  interview  [)id)lished  in  Pcursou's  M(i<jii:.inr 
that  he  would  not  have  eared  to  share  the  respousihijlt  v 
of  a  declaration  of  war  luid  not  licliiiinn  hrcn  (itlackcd,  and 
lie  thoufjjht  he  mi«,dit  say  th(.'  same  on  behalf  of  most,  if 
not  all,  ol"  his  colleagues. 

This  shows  that,  by  the  bnaclt  of  ndilralilj/,  (iermanv 
drove  anotluu*  enemy  into  arms  a<,'ainst  her,  and,  in  the 
eircmnstanees,  the  most  dangerous  of  them  all.  Morc;- 
over,  it  was  this  breach  of  faith  which  consolidated  British 
opinion  in  favour  of  the  war. 

Tluu'e  is  no  ground  for  the  su(,';^'estion  that  (ireat  liritain 
deliberately  broufj^ht  about  the  war;  on  the  contrary,  her 
attitude  in  the  Austro-Serbian  crisis  showed  that  she  was 
anxious  to  secure  a  peaceful  solution. 

In  spite  of  the  trade  rivalry  with  Germany  there  was 
an  excellent  chance  of  com))osing  all  differences  in  a 
friendly  spirit  and  of  satisfyiiifr  the  mercantile  inter(  sts 
both  of  (ireat  Britain  and  Germany  :  the  British  colonies 
were  not  menaced  by  Germany  any  more  than  the  (i(  rman 
colonies  were  menaced  by  (ireat  Britain. 

wSynopsis  of  the  Cai'ses  of  the  WoKi.n  Wah 

/.  Causa'  rcinot(v 

If  we  look  back  u])on  the  prineii)al  haji|ienin<Ts  in  Euroj-te 
during  the  past  centiu'V,  we  fmd  the  following:  antecedent, 
remote,  or  predisposini^  causes  of  the  World  War  : 

(1)  Germanism,  originally  a  necessary  reaction  after 
Germany's  defeats  in  the  Napoleonic  wars,  hecavtr  a 
chauvinistic  obsession,  bringinsj  with  it  a  false  racial  jiolicy 
based  on  Gcrmanistic  megalomania. 

(2)  Prussia  established  under  Bi  =  marck"s  guidance  her 
hcf^emnnj/  of  German]!  by  the  Danish  War  of  IStU  and  the 
German  War  of  18(36. 


244       Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

(li)  Bismarck  [)rovi)kc'(l  the  l>anco-Gt>rinan  War  of 
1870,  by  ^vhi('ll  he  aimed  at  and  paved  the  way  for 
(Jermanys  htsjrmony  in  Europe  under  the  leadership 
of  the  mihtary  State  of  Prussia. 

(4)  Ctrrndny'.s  unritwalion  of  Alsact-Ldrrnint'  in  1871, 
conse»juent  uj)on  wliieh  Ciermany,  out  of  fear  of  a  war  of 
revenue  on  the  part  of  Franc-e,  continuously  increasetl  her 
military  strenu'th,  forced  France  into  corresponding  arma- 
ments, threatened  her  with  a  new  war,  created  the  Triple 
Alliance  and  ^ave  rise  to  the  Franco-Russian  Alliance. 

(5)  After  the  Russo-Turkisli  War  of  1877-78,  which  made 
an  end  of  Turkisli  op|)ression  in  the  Balkan  peninsula  and 
pave  rise  to  independent  Balkan  States,  the  Berlin  Congress 
of  l,s78  iiaie  Austria  advanta<ies  at  Russia's  expense,  with 
the  result  that  Russia  herjan  to  make  (ncrtures  to  France. 

(«»)  Austria's  mandate  from  the  Berlin  Congress  to 
occupij  liosnia  and  Ilerzcilo;  ina  and  the  arbitrary  amuxa- 
tion  of  the  j)ro\ine(s  in  l'.M)S,  \iolatinL:  the  spirit  of 
nationality  and  adding  fuel  to  the  Serbian  agitation 
against   Austria. 

(7)  (it nnany  s  oier-population  and  C(d(>ni(d  pnliey  gave 
rise  to  the  creation  of  a  j)owerful  lleet  and  the  growth  of 
an  aggressi\-e  j)olicy  which  operated  as  a  threat  against 
other  Bowers. 

//.   Causer  proxinur 

The  events  which  may  be  set  down  as  proximate  causes 
of  the  \\'orld  War  were  : 

(I)  .iustria's  rtfus(d,  supj)nrled  htj  (urnmnij,  affi  r  the 
assassinat  iMii  of  tin-  Ht  ir  Appar<iit,  I'raneis  Ferdinand, 
had  Ijrouijlit  alinut  the  Serbian  eonjlict.  to  refer  the  dispute 
to  a  curiff  rin<e.  :i->  ]ir<'p"s<(i  by  (ir<.it  Britain,  l-'ranee, 
B)issia,  and  .Serbia,  and  Austria's  ultitnalinn  tn  .Serbia. 

CJ)   (iermarn/'s  viidatinn  "J  li,  I'jian  ni  ulralitj/. 

Tlieic  events  t<><»k  place  durili!.:  the  historic  da\s  of 
.lulv  'JS  AuL'u->t  1.  r.tl  I.  ;iiid  may  tlierel'ure  |»e  regarded 
as  the  pr«  lude  to  the  most  .-ippalhng  eatast  rojihi-  that 
I'-'iT'ij/e  has  (  \-er  known,  a  rnilit.iry  "  halt  ""  in  the  ad\anee 


Causes  of  the  World  ^VAIl  *2ir) 

of  civilization,  which  has  l^rou^'ht  ahout  the  harharic 
destruction  of  the  Hves,  healtli,  and  ha|)j)in(ss  of  milhons 
of  human  bcint^s. 

The  responsibility  for  the  Worhl  War  must,  therefore, 
if  tliese  proximate  causes  have  been  correctly  stated,  he 
laid  to  the  charge  of  the  last-named  Powers,  both  of  which, 
by  two  annexations — of  Alsace-Lorraine  and  Hosnia- 
Herze^fovina  gave  rise  to  the  fatal  eoniliets  which  j»re- 
ci[)itated  the  war. 


XII — -ioritinut'd 
THE   WORLD   WAR  OF   191  t 


I).  Gkkmanys  Militarism  and  Phki'ahkdnkss  rou 
\Vau  :  Kukoi'f/s  Fkau  or  (inuMANY  :  Tiii:  Gkkman 
\'iK\v  OF  Tin:  War  :  "  Wi:  have  hkkn  attacked  ; 
(.KR.MANV  IS  W'ACiiNci  A  Dkiknsivk  War"  :  A  IIVI'NO- 
TizKD  Nation, 

A  sriiVKV  of  tlie  wars  wliicli  liavr  visited  Western  and 
Central  I'.tnope  in  the  last  hall'  century  those  of  l.SOl, 
lh«;«i,  and  1  S7()  \vill  reveal  I'russia  as  tiie  attaekint;  party, 
moulding:  (i(  rniany  into  the  most  jiowerful  military  State 
in  the  \sorId.  J-".\(.  r  since  tlu-  I'raneo  (ierman  \Nar 
Ci(  rmany  has  ne\-er  ceased  to  arm.  and  has  dcNclopcd  hi  r 
military  sfreiiL'th  at  an  abnormal  rate,  .'ind  the  peace, 
which  lasti-d  foity-three  xiars,  \vas  l)ut  an  armed  jh  ace,  a 
sinister  truce  j>ro|onL:(<l  imder  the  shadow  of  impemiing 
sfnfr. 

All  other  States  ha\c  \)<r\\  compilKd  to  arm  and  to 
dcVil.ip  tlpir  nulitar\  r(S(iurc<s  to  a  j>reposterous  clejzrec 
hccaiis'-  (i(  iiuaiiN.  thioiiL'h  lur  colossal  nnlitar\'  jiow*  r  and 
lier  rut  hji  ss  di^li  L.'al  il  I'  iP  iiit  eiiiat  ioiial  aLTreeliu  ut  s.  has  Iteiii 
a  rioi.sliint  tin  nm  ,  In  j}iiif,  .  I'acilic  assurances  IVotu  h  adintj 
men  in  (ii  rmany  ha\i-  m  \i  r  (pute  succndid  in  ri  assuring 
oth(  r  nations.      Tjiis  is,  I  think,  an  aeknow  jidi^^d  fact. 

W  h'fi  \\f  spi  ak  of  till-  moiistr>iUs  spri  ad  of  niilihii  isj/i . 
du.  |c>  the  LUowth  of  (i(rinaii  mihtai\  sti(ML:th.  wc  m<an 
pMinaiiK'  tlif  di  \  (  ]( )],iii(  nt  of  mihtar\  powi  r  jx  r  .sr.  Hut 
this  f .  till  also  has  anot|n  r  ni' aiiinu'.  which,  applied  to 
( I'  niiaii\  ,  Is  s|M|,il,<aiit  . 


Germany's  Militarism  and  Prei'arkdnkss  247 

liy  niiliUuism  in  the  nurrowc-r  sense  we  mean  eolliH|uially 
tlie  prcdoniinanee  and  encouragement  of  tlu-  martial 
spirit,  of  military  domination  or  tlie  aseendaney  of  the 
military  over  the  civil  element. 

In  small  countries,  which  liave  long  heen  spared  the 
trials  of  war  and  which  have  had  no  cause  lor  embroil- 
ments, such  as  ma\'  he  brought  about ,  for  instance,  through 
alliances,  a  tendency  to  (»ppose  all  measures  of  national 
(klV'Ucc  is  apt  to  sj)ring  up  amongst  the  so  called  "*  paei- 
lisls,"  who  think  that  nothing  need  be  done  to  earn  the 
j)rivilegc  of  living  in  peace,  and  that  it  is  wrong  to  en- 
courage armaments,  because  a  neighbouring  State  might 
regard  them  as  indicative  of  hostile  intentions,  or  because 
it  would  be  impossible  in  any  case  to  protect  oneself  i'rom 
attack  by  a  larger  Power.  These  pco|)le  tlo  not  disliii'.uish 
between  militarism  and  national  defence,  and  any  luaiked 
interest  in  the  latter  cause  is  stigmatized  as  "militarist 
propaganda,"'  ■which  calls  for  counter-organization  in  the 
shape  of  "anti-militarist  proj)aganda."* 

To  some  extent  this  opj)osition  to  military  j)roj)aganda 
also  makes  itself  felt  among  the  Great  I'owers,  as  Avhen 
the  Gernuui  ^vorkmen  agitated  for  Abriislii}i<i  (disarma- 
ment). l)ut  l)y  this  was  only  meant  a  reduction  of  the  pre- 
postei'ous  arnuuuents  to  moderate  ])roportions  by  nmtiuxl 
agreement  between  the  Slatis. 

Although  the  ^vhol(•  world  has  long  regarded  Germany 
as  a  t\  pieal  example  of  uiilitarjsni,  there  are  Cicriuans  who 
will  not  admit  that  there  is  an\'  ground  for  this  \  iew. 
Thus,  for  instance.  Dr.  K.  L.  ^Valter  van  der  Bleek  *  writes 
as  follows  :  "  Our  enemii's  connect  the  wortl  Chrmany 
with  the  term  '  militarism."  This  is  mori-  than  a  mere 
j)hrase,  more  than  a  mere  shil)l)oleth.  Germany's  militarism 
is  also  meant  to  imply  a  principle,  and  the  lenu  has  by 
malicious   innuendo   been  gi\en  a  ri'puJsive  signilieanee. 

*  See  Die  \'cnii(liliiii<i  der  c)iil!iwlii>>  ^]'(■llrn(lL^<t  iiin!  <li  s  russli,i'lun 
Ziirisnttis  durcli  ticii  Drcibund  und  den  IsUuu  (  ■ 'I'lu-  I'lst'i;.  i  ii"! 
V.\  gli-h  W  ..r!<i-l\)\'.rr  ;  nd  JIns-i  ii  'rsiiMsin  I  y  the  '1  i  ![■!*■  All:ii:  ee 
iinil   Ishiiu"").  l>y  K.  1..  Wiilter  wax  dir  I'.kek.  VJ\:>. 


248       Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

"  Gtrinuiiy  is  suppc^st-d  to  he  a  State  Ijuilt  uj)  on  a  ft)iinda- 
tion  of  ^ahre -rattliuLT  :uhI  high-rxplosivc  slicUs,  whose  ideal 
is  war,  whuse  niDiality  is  soldiirly  hrutahty,  whose  system 
is  luihtary  drsj)otisiii.  IJut  those  wlio,  sine  irn  ft  studio, 
relleet  on  tlie  leal  nuarun^'  of  the  w«)rd  will  lind  that  the 
niueh  ahuseil  militarism  of  the  Ciermans  is  their  superb 
or<j;ani/at  ion,  the  subonlindtit/n  aj  igoistical  intrrtsls  io  the 
great  anil  ever-present  aim  :  the  freest  eonceivabk'  develop- 
nunt  of  cultunil  (i.spirdtions  is  made  possible  only  by  all- 
powerful  order  and  diseij)line,  the  intelligent  fitting  of  a 
j)art  into  the  whole,  and  army  and  armaments  merely  serve 
for  the  j)ri>teetion  of  the  nu)st  diligent  and  tlu-  most 
assiduous  lal)ours.  '"  The  dehnition  oi'  Ciermanys  milita- 
rism is,  thcrifore,  loic  of  order,  whieh,  carried  to  its  logical 
conclusion,  means  an  idtally  ur^dfiizcd  militunj  system.  This 
ex{)lains  to  the  whole  of  10uro})e  and  to  the  inner  conscience 
of  the  \sliole  of  the  inhal»ited  globe  tlu-  true  imp()rt  of 
(iirtnunj/  and  heiu-e  also  of  the  (itrniariic  nicf  as  embodied 
in  the  one.  albeit  misiniderstood,  expression." 

W'c  ri-cogiii/c  in  this  da/./ling  j)ieture  of  t  lie  "  maligned  " 
(ierman  nulilarisui  the  Germanistic  dreams  of  gnalness 
of  the  begiiming  of  the  nineteenth  century,  but  they  are 
now  organically  welded  to  the  nnlitary  might  whii-h  (Jer- 
m;Ui\'  attaiii'd  through  iiisuiaick.  whilst  the  spokesnu-n 
<»1"  popular  t  iiliglitenmeiit  and  liberal  j)oliey  in  the  sixties 
ol'  last  eenturw  s\u'h  as  X'irehow,  ]].  Uieliter,  and  other 
iiiinibi  rs  of  the  l*rogi-i>si\  (•  J'arly,  have  vainly  sought  to 
sti  III  the  ;4ro\\tli  of  (i(  rnianisf  ie  ehauNinisni  into  nnlitary 
rul>-,  or,  in  othtr  woids,  nnlilari>m  in  the  spirit  of  the 
"  l{|oM(l  "  ;iu(|  ■■  lioii  ■"  Clianei  llor  (<;/".  ]>.   l.">). 

\'an  (!'  r  IJ!'.  k  ri  aeh'  >  his  apot  ludsisof  (i(  rman  unlit  ar ism 
uh'u  111-  s,i\  s  :  "'  |{\  1  iii|H  lialJNni  (iiriii,iii\-  dors  not  nuan 
military  diet  at  o|•^||i|),  hut  uk  ii  ly  a  sjiiritual  and  moral 
eultuial  mi^^ion  baekid  by  gnat  iiulitaiy  and  na\'al 
str.  iiL'th.' 

( )!i  f  li'-  World  War  h'-  niak»  ^  t  he  lojlow  ing  obs(r\-ations  : 
"  lie  aim  of  (i(  riiiau\-  and  In  i-  allies  is  not  e((nijuesl  ;  it  is 
i'l>i'i!iinfi    in    innraliti/,    in    mlliirr.    .    .    .   Tin     :iil!l)<in'j    of 


Germany's  Militarism  and  Preparkdnkss  '249 

the  world  is  hound  up  with  (urnuiny's  victory  ;  .  .  .  th<- 
nations  must  be  finally  liberated  from  the  liriti.sh  uorltl- 
yukc.  ...  It  is  ineinnbent  upon  us  to  prcscrNc  Kurojx's 
civilization  through  the  Gerinanie  peoples  of  Germany 
and  of  the  North,  and  tlu;  nations  bound  to  them  by  ties 
of  kinship  and  alliance." 

Accordiiif,^  to  van  der  Bleek,  '*  the  Kmjxror  William's 
Imperialism  is  not  a  eravinfr  for  j)o\ver,  but  a  crui  iti<^  for 
piaci','"  but  he  ""  is  not  deterred  from  ehastising  with  a 
heavy  hand  all  ac^ts  inimieal  to  eulture,  and  thus,  when  the 
law  of  nations  was  infringed  in  China,  he  did  not  hesitate 
to  strike  with  his  moihd  fistS' 

If  Germany  was  justilied  in  that  ease  the  murder  of  a 
couple  of  missionaries  in  a  ric^t  {cf.  p.  1;}1)  sm-eiy  England 
had  as  great,  if  not  a  greater,  right,  in  view  of  (iermany"s 
violation  of  the  law  of  nations  by  her  attack  on  Belgium,  to 
chastise  Germany  with  her  mailed  list. 

Nowhere  has  militarism  attained  sueh  a  growth  as  in  Ger- 
many, and  especially  in  Prussia.  The  idea  of  the  superiority 
and  importance  of  the  military,  as  compared  with  the  civi- 
lian element,  is  encom-aged  by  the  ruling  class  ;  to  don 
the  Emperor's  uniform  is  to  achieve  a  higher  status,  and 
no  one  is  given  a  commission  in  the  army  who  i)elongs 
to  the  lower  classes,  so  tliat  one  may  truly  sjxak  of  a 
military  caste.  Implicit  obedience  to  one's  sujxriors  is 
the  duty  of  all,  and  this  duty  is  im|)ressed  with  the  utmost 
rigour  on  recruits.  ^Villiam  II  once  said  in  a  speech  to  the 
recruits  of  his  Guards,  some  years  ago,  that  they  nuist 
blindly  obey  their  superiors,  even  were  it  a  question  of 
shooting  their  father  or  mother  ! 

This  subordination  is  an  exact  parallel  to  that  en- 
forced in  the  Order  of  the  Jesuits  :  the  sujireme  head  is  the 
sole  arbiter  of  the  conscience  of  the  members,  and  is 
entitled  to  blind  obedience,  according  t(^  tlie  rule  Kris  .sicul 
cadaver.  It  is  obvious  that  sueh  (liseii>line  must  have  an 
injurious  effect  on  the  character  and  must  erainp  the 
individm^l  initiative,  with  the  result  that  the  nun  l)eeonie 


250        Before,  During,  and  After  1911 

f^fktu'chit!  (cowccl).  That  real  brutality  is  ofttii  practisi-cl 
we  know  IrDni  the  iuwNj)ai)t.rs  and  I'roni  tlu-  |)arlianuntary 
(lcl)at(S,  which  constantly  testily  to  nialtnat  incnt  of 
soldiers  hy  ollicers  and  non-connnissioned  otliccrs  ;  suicide 
sitnutinu  s  n-sults  I'roni  this  cause. 

\\v  saw  not  lon;^'  ai,'o  an  instanci-  of  military  hi^di- 
liandednt  ss  at  Zahern  (Alsace),  when  a  yoini*;  lieutenant,  to 
compel  rcsj)ect  for  the  uniform,  attacki-d  "  in  self  ilefence/" 
^^ith  the  sword,  a  lame  and  crippled  cohhUr  who  hapj)ened 
to  stand  in  his  way  and  was  thereupon  seized  by  two 
soldit-rs.  Blind  olx diince  and  respect  for  the  uniform  have 
the  effect  of  turning'  munberless  men  almost  into  auto- 
matons who  act  alto^'etlur  without  rillect ion.* 

It  is  s^Miatly  to  be  feared  that  (ierman  culture,  which  we 
have  hitherto  \ahn d  so  hi;j^hly,  will  lon^'  remain  tainti-d  by 
till-  j)oli(y  of  \  iulenci-  which,  introducetl  by  Hismarck  and 
evohfd  in  the  liismarckian  spirit,  h d  to  such  ^"iolations  of 
aceei)tr(l  law  as  the  assault  on  Hi  li,Mum.  the  massaciis  of 
Lou\ain  and  otht  r  towns,  (  tc. 

The  ("Id  blooded  mamii-r  in  which  (i<  neial  !?(  iiiliardi 
has  elaborat(  d  t  he  ]io|ic\'  of  luiuht ,  louiidi d  on  ( ii  rmanist  ie 
dreams  of  ;,'reat  ness,  has  made  a  dt  (  |»  impression  on  all 
out  side  (Jermaiiy  who  ha\f  read  his  licndish  book,  and  has 
aroused    uni\(  rsal  ama/emt  nt    and    horror.       It    can   ([uite 

•  III  I  li:-.  ("iiiu  xii'ii  I  iii:i\-  n  I  ill  tilt  fainmis  (  xjijcit  (if  I  In  (  «  lil.li  r 
\'..L-t  ;it  K()|.  imk  (-111. ml.  i.f  n<iliii)  iii  I'.Mit;.  Il<-  (,miU  a  ;:i.  at 
iiit  I  n  sl  Ml  iii;i!  1 1  is  '  f  inilil  :i'  \'  i  >  .iiiiii:it;il  ami  \\  •  II  I.  m  \\  t  Ik  pdwt  r 
c.f  t  In  i!ii:f'ii  III  ;  In  111  I  1  iin  il:i\  .  \s  In  11  In  w  a>  i  .11 1  "f  \\  "I  k .  lir  di  <  ii  li  d 
1 1.  |.iit  111-  km  'V*  1'  'h  <  1  •!'  liuiiiaii  iiat  in  .  \<>  ].!:'.(  I  nal  ii-i  ami  l.i.iiL'Iit 
a  1  t].!  .liii-  -■  <  .ml  1 1.1  ml  uiiifni  in  at  an  (iM  cld'hts  slip.  At  I  in  d  iii 
t  h:  ^.  In  '>'.(['  !•  .1  a  I-'  ii  |i  ■!  a!  ami  a  |i  \\  iin  ii  \'.  In  .|ii  In  im  1  1 1  >  ai  i  .  ani 'an  y 
hi  III  ;  tin  s-  1  •!"  \  i  >\  \',  il  In  'Wl  a  im  im  lit  '  .  In  --il  al  i.'ii  ami  |i  .11.  .\m  il  Iniii 
(Hit  In  l\(ij.<  111.  k.  li.ri  tln\  man  In. 1  ii|i  [>>  tin  I  .  .w  li  hall .  \\  In  m 
tin  Iiia\  1  'I.  \\  In  1  w  a  -  an  <  .M  I  •  ■  i  \  i-  t  i  111.  .  v .  maik  a  il.  i  ]<  '•)"  i-alinc 
In  f.  .[■•■  I  In  '■  capl  am,'  hnl  I  In  I.C  '  .  i  ! .  i  rl\  .  .nl.  n  d  t  hat  I  In  iiia\  (i|■ 
-in  iiild   111    am   .1 1  d  ami  I  a  In  n  1 1 .   I 'n  i  Im  .       'I  In-  \\  a-  d.  .m  .  and  In    \\  a  ^ 

l.il..  n   li\    tin    -..Id I.  I  .  t..  t  In    I'li.iid   I at    I  In     lliand.  id.in:'  (.al<  . 

M  iii'.Miil.  tin  ■•captain"  •  i /<  d  'jn  ( inn  niai  k  -  i  ai  I  id  tin  li.a-ni_\ 
i,f  tin  t .  I  ,■.  n  and  di  a|.|.'aiid  f"r  a  turn.  in  im  ntlnr  l',uii.i«an 
(  .  Hint  I  \    ■.'.  •  .iild   t  hm   iniiit  ai  \    (  \|.i.  at    ha\  i     1..  <  n   j...  -ihln. 


Germany's  Militarism  and  Puepaukdnmss  'J51 

conlidently  be  assirtid  lluit  such  a  book  could  m  our 
time  have  been  written  in  no  othtr  country  in  tin-  world. 
That  he  cUircd  to  pubhsli  it,  and  that  lie,  a  i'russian 
general,  was  allowed  to  publish  it,  is  a  terrible  and  niclaii- 
choly  token  oC  tin;  spirit  which  rei^'us  at  all  events  in  the 
military  caste  of  Prussia,  and  which  means,  not  pro^'rt  ss 
in  culture,  but  retr()<,M-ession.  That  this  and  similar  works, 
as  well  as  the  liismarckian  j)oliey,  are  tlisapj>i-o\  cd  b\-  nian\ 
Germans  there  can  be  no  doubt. 

That  (iermany  did  not  go  to  war  over  .Murocco  in  I'.tll 
was  ihie,  according  to  liernhardi,  to  a  "'  false  humanity  "' 
which  gave  birth  to  the  peace  movemint.  Ib-nee  he 
wanted  to  show  that  war  is  a  duty  not  only  for  self- 
defence  but  for  the  purpose  of  extending  the  power  of  the 
State,  for  conquest. 

Bismarck  is  dead,  but  he  foimded  a  school  and  his 
disciples  have  pursued  his  policy.  The  Bismarckian  or 
Machiavellian  j)rincii)les  arc  still  applied  and  aj)proved  by 
many  admirers  of  the  "  Blood-and-Iron  Chancellor.'' 
There  are  many  who  endorse  the  ])rinci|jle  that  mi^ld  is 
evcr}i:hing  and  who  consider  that  it  is  better  to  be  fcart d 
than  to  be  loved. 

Germany  has  become  through  Bismarck,  in  sjjite  of  all 
cultural  effort,  primarily  a  military  State,  and  her  ]»eopIe 
have  been  systematically  educated  to  this  \iew.  Ger- 
many's warrior  caste  has  devoted  its  greatest  efforts  t(j  the 
furtherance  of  armaments  in  anticij)ation  of  a  war  which 
it  has  long  deemed  inevitable  and  which  military  authors 
welcome  as  a  means  of  stiffening  the  fibre  of  the  people  and 
promoting  culture  I  Its  sole  ])reoecupatiou  is  to  find 
pretexts  for  war,  and  it  de{)lores  peace  as  a  debilitating 
factor. 

In  a  manifi'sto  to  the  army  and  na\y  on  the  outbreak 
of  the  War  of  1914  characterist  ie,  l)y  the  way.  o^  a 
military  State -the  iMuperor  A\"illiani  ga\e  \ent  to  tlu- 
following  sentiments  :  "  I  \n\i  my  faith  in  the  o!d  :i.iirhl:t' 
s})irit  still  living  in  the  German  people,  this  fniilhty  udrliliC 


252        Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

spirit  whicli  a^^aults  the  cntiiiy  when-  it  liiuls  him,  cost 
what  it  may,  the  icarlifif  sjiirit  which  from  the  remotest 
ages  luis  l)cen  the  terror  and  sc<)ur<lf  of  our  eiuinies.  He- 
member  our  j^reat  aiul  j^'lorious  history,  rememlur  that 
ye  arc  Germans  !     Ciod  with  us  I  '" 

Tluis  tlie  Ciermanistic  faith  in  Ciermany's  suj>eri()rity 
over  all  other  countries  has  hi  en  ^'radually  sujj^ested  to 
the  consciousness  of  the  jxople,  who  seem  to  iiave  n<»t  the 
nniot(st  notion  that  (ierman  policy  has  ever  been  at 
fault  in  important  matters,  that  Germany,  especially 
Prussia,  has  ever  vi(»lated  international  law  and  trampleil 
the  ri<,'hts  of  nations  uiuhr  foot,  causinjf  tncniits  lu  arist-  all 
round  her  and  creatin;^'  throu^diout  the  world  anta^'onism  to 
her  military  policy.  Cicnntirnj's  lofty  inttllcctudl  culturt'  and 
industrial  ([ficicnri/  arc  f/rA;(o:i /<•(/;,'<  r/  txcrt/ufurf,  but  the 
nations  do  not  admire  lur  policy;  they  /ic/  <ii)})n}un^ive 
oj  this  xcarrinr  State. 

It  seems,  indeed,  as  if  the  military  caste  actually  desired 
to  create  /iv/r  aj  (Itrinanij. 

How  different  were  till-  Sentiments  of  I'r*  ih  rick  the 
(ireat  I  "  To  make  enemies, ""  he  said,  "'  in  order  to 
vanijuish  them  is  (  (jui\"alent  to  breediuLl  wild  beasts  in 
order  to  liLjlit.  a;,Miiist  them.  It  is  far  more  natural,  far 
more  sensible,  and  lar  more  human  to  make-  friends." 

In  a  reply  to  the  pamphlet  Win/  d<i  the  Xatians  Ilatr  Vs  / 
recently  publisjied  ity  a  will-kno\\n  H(  rlin  physician.  Dr. 
-M.  Ilirschfeld.  the  Dutchman  Dr.  Tn  ub  observed  that  the 
reason  whv  the  Germans  lj<  ueialK'  are  not  liked  liis  in 
their  arroL'anee.  their  spirit  of  lluiikt  ydom,  and  tluir 
coarseness,  and  th.tt  tjie  nations  jiate  Gt  rniaiiy  on  account 
of  her   militarism   and    her  ea;,ferness   to  subdue   all   i>thcr 

jxopjes. 

No  country  in  the  world  has  iVrv  be*  n  so  pirptiualhi 
prfjiartil  Jnr  utir  as  (^rmany,  the  military  State  par 
(■  tci  lltuct .  (Hi-nian\'  has  no  ne(  d  to  speak  of  mobilization 
in  the  ordinarx'  si  iise  when  war  thre.iteiis;  she  is  pcr- 
iiuniiuthj  nioliili/,e(|   in   a  siiHici"  iil    dearie  and   is  th(r<t"ore 


Germany's  Militarism  and  Preparedness  2'):^ 

ready  when  u  state  ofwar  is  declared  to  exist.  The  Minister 
of  War  has  hut  to  press  a  few  huttf)iis  rin.s,  zrcri,  drei  and 
at  tlie  word  of  eoininand  the  armies  stand  at  the  frontier 
ready  to  strike  witliin  a  eonjjK-  of  days. 

Witli  their  eyes  steadfastly  lixed  on  the  f^'oal  hcfon-  thirn 
the  military  authorities  liave  antieij)ate(l  (very  want  with 
the  most  admirahle  minuteness  :  colossal  d(  pots  (  scry- 
whcrc,  containini,'  food,  clothes,  hoots,  and  other  articles  of 
equipment,  hospital  re(iuiremenf s,  etc.,  for  untold  millions 
of  soldiers  of  every  aL,'e-class,  \vhilst  ^nms,  rilles,  and  other 
war  material  have  l)een  |)iled  up  sky-hi^di  in  ars(  nals  and 
factories  in  preparation  for  the  war  of  wars.  I'Aerv  need 
which  may  arise  in  wa(j:in<r  war  with  other  (ireat  Powt  rs 
has  been  foreseen  and  the  industrial  life  of  the  nation  hits 
been  organized  accordinfjly. 

Germany,  therefore,  has  never  any  cause  to  worry  over 
the  mobili/ations  of  other  States.  She  was  always  ready 
for  war  and  always  ready  to  strike. 

Although  the  majority  of  the  German  nation  that  is 
to  say,  the  workmen,  farmers,  small  manufacturers,  mer- 
chants, etc.  —  arc  friends  of  peace  -and,  accordingl}'.  have 
been  taken  to  task  by  Bcrnhardi  the  agitation  organized 
by  Bcrnhardi  and  other  chauvinistic  leaders  has  succeeded 
in  working  upon  jniblic  opinion  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
Morocco  Treaty  of  Xovem))er  l,  1011.  was  actually  received 
with  disappointment  by  millions  of  peo})le  in  all  classes  of 
society  in  Germany,  and  rendered  ])ossiblc  tlie  new  military 
law  of  1912  which  vastly  augmented  the  strength  of  the 
army.  The  sequel  in  France  was  the  ])rojiosed  rcintro- 
duction  of  three  years'  military  service,  whicli  was  sanc- 
tioned after  considerable  opposition.  Tliis  was  folhnved 
in  Germany  by  proposals  for  a  further  increase,  and  the 
celebration  of  the  centenary  of  the  great  War  of  Liberation 
against  France  in  1813  was  exploited  to  spur  the  nation 
to  fresh  effort.  The  result  was  the  great  extraordinary 
defence  tax  of  1913,  which  amounted  to  1000  million  marks 
and  was  accompanied  by  increased  annual  taxes  for  the 
army.      When   the   Government   began   to   fear  that   the 


254        Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

people  niijjht  murimir  under  tluse  burdens,  they  souglit, 
as  often  before  when  inercased  niihtary  estimates  were 
ini})cndin^',  to  show  tliat  the  safety  of  the  Empire  was  in 
jeoj)ardy, 

M.  Ktirnnc,  th<-  Krtncli  ^Var  Minist<r.  sueeecdcd  in 
March  I'.n.*}  in  obtaininj,'  jxisscssion  of  a  (icrnuin  (>(J'u{<il  iind 
secret  ri purl  conecrnin;,'  tht-  new  inihtary  hiws  and  the  aims 
of  (irrman  pohcy,  cte.  This  rcmarkal)h-  doeununt  of 
March  H»,  1 '.U  .'J,  contains  t  he  foUowinif  iUuminatin<f  obsirva- 
tions  :  "  It  is  our  sacred  (hity  to  sharpen  the  sword  which 
has  b(  (  n  [)hiccd  in  our  hand  and  to  hold  it  ready  for  defence 
as  Well  as  to  strike  down  our  enemy,  llie  iii:c  iliat  our 
(irni/intent.s-  are  ii  rejilii  to  the  (irmtiments  <ini{  policji  of  the 
Frtfieh  tfiu.st  he  fostered  (itfion'^st  tJw  fieople.  The  j)eoj)le 
must  be  accustomed  tt)  the  thouL,'lit  tliat  an  ojfenslvr  uv/r 
on  our  jxirt  is  a  txeessiti/  if  we  arc  to  make  an  end  of  our 
ad\'ersaries"  proN" -cat  ions.  \\\-  nuist  proct  cd  :eith  aitition  so 
as  not  to  arouse  suspicions.  .  .  .  TJie  \\:\v  must  be  jirc- 
partd  fiMiii  the  tinancial  |»<iint  of  \ie\v.  .  .  .  Di^liirlxinets 
tniist  he  proioktd  in  Xorthern  .l/rieo  ond  liussid  as  a  uk  aiis 
of  div<  rtinu'  the  forces  of  the  ad\(rsarv.  Theretore  it  is 
necessarv  that  we  should  tlii'oULrh  well-cjioseu  intirme- 
(baries  <jet  into  contact  with  itillueutial  persons  in  l''L'>pt. 
Tunis,  Al'_'eria,  and  Morocco  in  onh  r  to  prepare  the 
measures  wliicji  will  become  necessary  in  case  of  a  I"'.uro|)ean 
war.  .  .  .  \N'e  must  be  strouLT  in  oidcr  that  we  may  l)e 
able  to  strike  down  our  enemies  in  the  l*".ast  and  ^V(  st . 
Hut  in  tjie  n<  \t  I'jiropean  ^^'ar  ///r  snioll  Stiit(S  tnust  also 
hi  juriiil  to  join  us  or  must  be  siibjuL'.'it e(h  In  the  North 
\M-  lia\(  not  hiriLT  to  l'»ar  fiom  l)»-mnark  or  t  he  Seandina\ian 
countries.  .  .  .  Hut  \\ccamiot  ci  )iit  emplat  e  wit  li  t  he  same 
coulidf  iiec  the  situation  on  our  N'oith  \N'est(  rn  iVontier. 
where  we  lia\e  the  two  small  .states  of  Hel<_'ium  and 
Holland.  Here  we  ari-  eonfront-d  witji  a  most  \ital 
piobli  in.  and  our  plan  must  b<-  tu  /,//,-,  the  of'j'ef)si:e  nt  tJie 
iin/  hei^iniiitrj  and  with  ijreat  su|  leiiorit  \- \n  ulti- 
matum with  biief  tun'lunit,  follnwrd  immediately  l)y 
in:  o.^  ion,  w^  <<\\i\  just  it  \  our  act  ion  sullieient  Iv  I  r(  'in  t  lie  point 


Germany's  Militafusm  and  Pui:rAUF.i)M.ss  i'.";r> 

of  view  of  int(TtKiti()ii;il  law.  .  .  .  We  must  niiiciiilxr  t  hat 
the  provinces  of  Ihr  old  (uriiuni  Empire,  tlic  ('<.iiiitv  <.r 
Burgundy,  and  a  ^iwal  |)art  t>r  Lorraine,  an-  still  in  tli.- 
hands  of  tlic  French,  that  thousands  of  onr  (i- rman 
brethren  in  the  Haltie  |)ro\inees  |,n-oan  nii(h  i-  the  y<>ki-  of 
the  ShiN'.  It  will  he  a  patriotic  act  tf)  restore  In  (ienii'ini/ 
tvhat  site  formerhj  passesseil.^'  * 

So  here  ^ve  have  a  coinj)Iete  plan  for  a  :i(tr  nf  (i<j'jrexsi(ni 
and  eon(piesf  ! 

'I'his  re[)ort  \vas.  of  course,  repudiated  in  ollieial  (iernian 
quarters.  IJut  it  l)ears  t  he  impress  of  undouhted  Lfeniutie- 
ncss,  and  all  its  details  correspond  entirel\-  Avith  other 
utterances  of  (Jcrman  nnlitary  authors  and  jxtjit ieians, 
so  that  tjiere  is  no  cause  to  donht  it.  especially  wIk  ii  we 
have  seen  what  (ieneral  Hei'nhardi  wrote  two  years 
]ireviously  in  (Sermonij  and  the  \erl  JVor.  Hut,  ol"  course, 
it  nuist  he  very  aimoyinLT  to  the  German  (Government  that 
an  ollieial  and  secret  report  of  this  kind  shoidd  hecome 
known  to  tlu*  Frcncli  (Jov(  .nment  ;  hence  the  otlieial 
dhnenti  wliieh  is  always  to  he  expected  in  such  cases. f 

M.  Canihon,  the  French  ami)assador  in  l^rlin,  wrote 
in  ids  dis]iateh  of  May  (i,  1!)!.'?.  to  the  French  F()rei<:n 
Minister  tjiat  he  had  obtained  eoonizance  of  an  utterance 
by  General  Moltk  •  as  to  the  plan  of  the  (ieiK  ral  .Staff  in 
ease  of  war.  which  consisted  in  taking  the  enemy  l)y 
surprise.  "The  handl  \iew  of  the  nsponsihiliti/  af 
the  atldcker."  said  Moltke,  "'  mn^t  be  s:eej)t  aside.  ^Vhen 
war  becomes  necessary  all  chances  of  success  must  be 
seized.  Siieeess  alone  eon  jitslifi/  it.  (ieruKDij/  neither  enn 
nor   must   t^ive   Russia    time   to   ))U)l>ilize,    for   in   that   ease 

*  See  French  Ycllinc  Bnnl:.  No.  2.  ]>.  Itl. 

t  It  has  lic(  n  soutrht  to  discrccht  tlic  ircnuinciK'-^  nf  tlii-  rfj^'ut 
by  jinintiiii:;  out  tliat  the  "■  County  of  l^iuTriniiiy  "  \va>  vtati  li  to  In-  m 
part  of  tlie  old  German  Empire,  a  nii--t.'ik(^  ■■\\ln\li  a  ii  ^i' 'ii^itilo 
German  autlior  would  never  have  made.""  On  tlii-  point  I  --hi'iild 
likp  to  say  that  not  only  the  old  kiuLrddm  (T  IJuru'iindy.  !>iil  a!,so 
tlio  Duchy  of  Oureundy.  or  the  i)rcs(  iit  province  of  n^uri/'  l'h.  .  was 
formerly  at  times  in  a  condition  of  va>>a!ac'e  to  the  ..Id  (,<  rnian 
Empire,  as  was  l-'raiulie  C'omte.  or  ■"  Freiirrafsthaft  !iuri:und."" 


256       Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

Germany  would  be  coinpelleci  to  keep  on  her  Eastern 
frontier  an  army  »»f  sueh  stren<:^h  tliat  she  ■would  he 
reductd  to  {(pidliti/  :iilfi,  if  not  inftriority  to,  Fruricf.  Thus 
Nve  must  forestall  our  prineij)al  opponent  as  soon  as  tlure 
are  nine  ehanees  aj^'ainst  ten  that  war  will  irism-,  and  we 
must  hti^in  xcithont  a  tfioincnt'.s  dthiy,  so  that  wt-  ean 
remorsi  lessly  erush  all  resistance." 

Germany's  militarism,  by  the  j)syeholo;^'ieal  effeet  whieh 
its  severe  discipline  and  its  insistinee  on  implicit  obedience 
have  produced  on  the  mind,  has  been  one  of  the  factors 
in  tlie  unanimity  whieh  the  Cierman  nation  has  disjdayc-d 
in  it^  concij)ti<>n  of  the  cause  of  Germany's  action  in  the 
War  of  r.»ll.  'V\\(  idea  has  been  instilKd  into  tlu-  national 
mind,  by  su^'<,'estion,  that  Germany  has  been  attacke<l, 
and  this  ^  icw  has  been  kept  alive  by  c-onstant  iteration. 
The  method  is  an  old  one,  and  we  huNc  a  celebrated  e\ami)le 
of  it  in  the  de\  ice  of  the  elder  ("ato,  who  ended  all  his 
spe( cht  s  in  the  Hi>man  senate  with  the  woids  :  "  l"et(  rum 
censeo  Cart ha;_'iiieiu  esse  deleiidaui.  "  Tliis  \iew  in  time 
became  the  rulin;.'  oj)inion  in  Home,  with  the  rt  suit  that 
in  the  end  the  hostile  city  fell  before  the  r(i)eated  assaults 
of  the   Homans. 

Hy  su<^<^(\slion  is  meant  an  act  l)y  which  an  idea  is 
imjilanted  in  the  brain  and  beconu  s  rooted  there,  an 
induced  \iew  which  may  deeixn  into  a  ^troiiLT  conviction. 
The  process  iiia\'  take  place  either  in  a  wakini:  or  in  an 
hvpiiotic  statt,  and  for  such  siiL'Ue-^t  ion  to  take  effect  it 
is   only    necessary   that    the   iii(li\idual    shall    b(  jie\c   or   be 

predisposi  (1     to     beHe\C. 

Preach'  rs.  aiUocates,  oratois,  statisnien.  (tc,  an-  all 
sUL'L'<'^t  ioiiisf  s  and  silk  with  all  th«ir  p<i\V(r  to  ini|»r(ss 
certain  m<  nfal  pictures  on  utln  r^.  and  political  t'anat  icism, 
lik'-  re|i;_Mous  fanaticism,  ol)tains  its  adlM-rents  by  sUL't'est  ion 
or  liNpnosis,  as  it  is  also  called,  wIk  n  it  has  th<'  same  effect 
as  h\pnofism. 

'I'he  uni\crsal  patriotic  (ie\i'ti..ii  shi.wn  by  thi-  (itrmans 
m   this    war,    in    the   suuL'<sf((|    b(  li.  f  that    the    l-'at  hcrlaiiil 


Germany's  Militarism  and  Preparednkss  'J'jT 

has  been  attacked,  is  the  most  niiiarkahlc  instancr  of 
collective  liypnotism  <m  a  colossal  scale  witiicssid  in 
modern  times.  It  reminds  us,  viewed  psyeliically,  of 
the  emotion  which  took  jjossession  of  the  jx-ople  when 
Pope  Urban  II  at  the  Council  of  Clermont  in  1()'.>.")  exhort  <<1 
the  multitude  to  set  out  on  the  First  Crusade  a;,'aiiist  the 
"unbelievers"  in  Palestine:  the  t^ncat  asst mhlv  was 
seized  with  ecstasy,  and  suddenly  the  cry  brokt  forth  : 
"  Deus  vult  !  Deus  vult  !  "  The  tliron-,'  outsid<-  took 
up  the  cry,  and  all  fastened  a  red  cross  on  their  ri^dit 
shoulder. 

The  French  were  then  "  Ciod's  chosen  people."'  When 
the  pilgrims  set  out  on  the  i-'irst  Crusade  the  rallyiiif^ 
cry  "  God  icilLs  it  !  "  was  ever  on  their  lips  ;  all  objections 
from  the  cautious  were  met  with  "'  Ciod  wills  it  !  ""  And 
when  at  last  the  crusaders  stood  i)efore  Jerusalem  the 
joy  was  boinidless  ;  all  fell  on  their  knees  and  cried  : 
"  God  xdlls  it  !  " 

Wc  witnessed  a  similar  religious  and  patriotic  fervour 
in  Germany  when  the  war  was  in  the  air  :  from  the  most 
exalted  quarter  it  was  proclaimed  :  Germany  lui.s  been 
attacked  by  her  enemies — 21w  zcar  has  been  brou<^ht  upon 
us  to  destroy  us  -The  Government  lias  done  all  in  its  ])():ier 
to  avert  rear  Omcard  rcith  God  Let  your  hearts  beat  fur 
God  and  let  your  fists  strike  dozen  tlie  enemy  -To  us  it  means 
to  be  or  not  to  be     God  leith  us  ! 

All  this  was  repeated  in  the  churches  and  in  the  Press 
many  thousand  times  and  the  suggestion  took  root  in 
all  minds.  From  the  highest  to  the  lowest  all  ^vere  pene- 
trated by  this  conviction  and  disj)layed  the  greatest 
devotion  and  self-sacrilice  in  the  dei\-nce  of  the  Fatln'rlaiul. 
which  was  thought  by  all  to  have  been  attacked  b>' 
treacherous  enemies.  The  blind  faith  in  the  word  of  the 
supreme  authority  of  the  State  permitted  no  doubt  :  the 
rejoinders  of  other  States,  the  negotiations  bifvs'een  tlie 
Governments,  were  in  the  main  unknown,  and  that  whieii 
was  made  public  had  been  tinged  with  the  colouring 
which    the    Government    thought    suitabU'.     The    wliole 

R 


258        Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

nation  was  united  in  a  .sin«,'lc  tli(ni<,'lit  :  Germany  has  bt'cn 
attacked,  Ccnnany's  ciislence  is  thnatemd.  Anion;^'  people 
usually  self-posses.sed.  anion^'  thinkers  and  savants,  the 
exultation  was  as  gnat  as  in  the  military  easte,  and  all 
Were  penetrated  with  the  eertainty  ol"  \  iet(»ry,  lor  '"  Ciir- 
niany's  eause  was  sacred  and  just."  "  Girinany  cannot 
he  tiestroyed,"  this  home  of  the  worlds  noblest  raci-, 
God's  chosen  peoj)le  which  is  destined  to  march  at  the 
liead  of  civilization  and  to  found  the  (iermanic  wurld- 
powir  :    God  icilL-  it  ! 

In  his  war  manifesto  to  the  German  people  the  Em{)eror 
William  declared  :  "  Our  enemies  ben;rud*;e  us  the  reward 
for  our  labours.  We  have  hitherto  borne  with  patience 
all  open  and  secret  enmity  from  east  and  west  and  across 
the  sea.  But  ikkc  tlnij  sttk  to  humiliatf  us.  We  are 
exj)eeted  to  look  on  with  folded  arms  whilst  our  enemies 
prej)are  for  a  inacluruus  assault  on  us.  .  .  .  In  the  jnidst 
of  })t(U'f  the  incniij  assails  us  ;  therefore,  to  arms  I  .  .  . 
It  is  a  tii,'ht  to  dtttrmine  whetlur  (ierman  stren;jth  and 
German  spirit  is  to  he  or  not  to  he.  Onward  with  (iod.  who 
will  be  with  us  as  he  was  with  our  ancestors  ! 

In  the  course  of  a  Christmas  speech  in  I-'rance-  the 
I^mi)(r(»r  said:  ""Ci'mI  has  willt d  that  the  enemy  should 
force  us  to  celebrate  this  festival  lure.  We  have  been 
atlaektd  and  uv  <//<■  (h/tndin;^  ottrsdits.  \\\-  stand  on 
till-  enemy's  soil  with  t  lir  tin  my  at  the  |)oint  of  <»ur  svsord. 
WitJi  our  hearts  boW((l  before  our  Lord  we  say,  as  did  the 
(ill  at  l\l(ctor  :  '  To  the  dust  with  all  Germany's  iiuiuies  I 
.Aiiitii."" 

Like  till-  (ii  rmaii  ollidal  proclamations,  the  .\ustrian 
mauilVstos  also  spok(  of  till'  war  as  a  (l<f(iisi\f  war. 
.\n  otlicial  <  loni/iuiilijiie  i>\'  April  17,  l'.»I.").  aniiouuciiii,'  that 
all  capable  of  b«aiiiii,'  anus  Im  t  \\  i  (  n  the  aL,''  s  of  (iL'lit'tii 
and  hff\'  shall  Ix  liabh  to  srr\  ice  in  tin-  Laiulst  uini  sa\  s  : 
"'I'll'-  L'i^';ii»tie  stru;.'L.'l'  \\1ikIi  has  bi  i  n  foretil  ujion  us 
b\  an  <n»in\  superior  in  pojiujation  eouipels  us  to  use  all 
oui-    s|  !(  liL't  h.   "    etc. 

The  (i(  rman   Chancellor  deehui  <l   in   the   Keiehsta!^  that 


Germany's  Militarism  and  Prkparkdnkss  lTj:) 

Sorbin  luul  cvadid  Aiist riu-IIuii^'ary's  just  (Icinauds  ami 
tlmt  tilt'  Gcnnau  Ciovi-niiiicnt  shared  uitli  its  ailv  tin- 
view  that  tlie  position  of  the  Cieriiiaiiie  race  was  luciiaeed. 
that  Russia  had  prevented  (iennaiiy's  efforts  at  nicdia- 
tioii  and  wanted  war.  "  Our  troops  were  eonlent  at  first 
to  act  on  the  (Icftnsivr.  We  stand  with  our  hacks  to 
the  walh  ...  It  is  with  a  clear  conscience  that  (ierniany 
marches  out  to  battle,"  That  (ierinany  has  been  attaek'd 
and  is  therefore  wa<^in^'  a  defensive  war  was  also  a\(  rrt d 
by  (icneral  von  Falkenhayn,  Chief  of  the  General  .Staff, 
when  he  was  interviewed  in  January  r.)l.">  by  Mr.  C'on;,'(  r, 
re})rescntativc  of  the  Associated  I'ress,  in  Berlin. 

''  This  is  no  offensive  war  on  our  part,"'  he  said.  '  // 
has  not  been  brought  into  bcin^  by  (inij  ntiliUinj  cd.stc  ur  <i 
m'llitdnj  pdrtij  ;  it  is  a  icur  :c(i<^cd  in  sclf-difincc,  farced 
upon  us  by  the  Russian  niobill/ation.  Russia  had  been 
warned  by  the  Eniixror  and  his  aini)assador  and  had 
been  told  that  if  she  ni()l)ilize(l  we  should  be  coinjxlh d 
in  self-dcfince  to  })roclaini  a  gtiural  mobilization  and  to 
take  all  stej)s  to  sofcguard  our  nalioudl  i.ristcncr."' 

When  the  German  Go\ernment  in  March  \\)\o  asked 
the  Reichstat;  for  another  1(),()()()  million  marks  to  continue 
the  war,  Dr.  Ilelfferieh,  Minister  of  Finance,  said  :  "  \\r 
must  absolutely  insist  that  our  tmniits  shall  be  luid 
responsible  for  the  material  loss  which  they  have  broULrht 
iijton  us  by  this  crimindl  dttdclc." 

In  the  German  Uppc-r  House  its  President,  after  tin- 
passinf^  of  the  RudLTct  on  March  1(1,  l'.»l."),  said:  "  The 
old  envy  of  our  neiilidxiurs  has  united  the  F-nteiite  I'dwcrs 
afrainst  us.  France  xctints  the  proiinces  :ihich  she  In.si  In 
1871,  Russia  icunts  the  province  if  Prussia,  and  Euiilaud 
contewpUdes  tJie  desl ruction  if  (it mum  trade  and  shipiami. 
What  have  they  attained  V  The  loss  of  most  of  ..ur 
colonies  is  not  deeisi\'e.  On  the  other  hand,  (it  'iiiaiiy  s 
territory  has  ])een  cleared  of  enemies,  ami  I'uland.  Hi  lu'i'iin. 
and  a  urcat  part  of  France  are  in  our  pi'^^^t  ^■>i(>n.  The 
plan  of  our  enemies  to  crush  Gerinauy  has  thu^  Ix  (  n  failed. 
If  we  did  not  aspire  to  more  than  beating  })aek  the  enemy. 


I'GO        Bkfouk,  1)luin(j,  and  After  1914 

it  would  iitit  !)(.•  ilillicult  to  ;>(.curf  a  sj)ec(ly  jjcacc  ;  but 
Gcnuany  cannul  n  >t  content  with  tliis  LH»ii>ununatioii. 
(Lt^utl  ilu(.i>  Iroin  all  sides.)  \\  i-  siiall  not  shratht-  our 
sword  until  wr  aix-  assured  that  our  nii^'hl)ours  u///  not 
n  /an   the  utttii  L." 

Gotinin,  a  political  rcononiist  and  nu  nil)rr  of  tla- 
Ittifhstaj,',  diclarid  (in  the  Jialintr  'J'agthLilt  in  l)(.ci'nil)iT 
lull)  that  "it  could  l)c  jtrovi-d  most  c-onclusivt  ly  that 
Germany  did  all  she  couUl  to  aurt  zcdr,  that  the  Itussian 
mohili/ation  and  tlu-  ihciaration  of  Franci-  as  to  her 
attitude  Jiiictd  us  lo  dijiiid  tiur.silits,  and  that,  even 
thou;,'h  the  lormal  dt chuat inn  of  war  came  Ironi  (iermany, 
tliis  >tei)  was  onl\'  tak(  II  that  we  mi^'ht  avail  oiirseKt  s  of 
our  superior  or;4ani/at  idi  lor  swift  aetion  in  tln'  war  tlius 
luiecd  upon  Us."  He  further  ohsc  rved  that  litttl  /;  lu<)i 
in  till'  piKit  r  (ij  Ihf  (iiriNiUi  (im  ( rniiu  nt  to  j)re\int  this 
war,  the  111  Soelal  Deliioerats  m  the  I{(  iehstaLT  Would 
not   iia\i'  \<ite(l   fur  thi-  war  eitdit. 

Oiu-  may  well  ask  :  lluw  w  i  re  tlu  sc  Social  Diiiiocrats 
or  otlur  ri  jtrcM  ntat  i\  ts  then  and  tlnre,  at  the  ra;,'ini,' 
sp(  I  (1  at  which  e\(nts  \\  (  re  moNiiiLT.  to  (  \amine  the 
(io\(  rniiu  nt  s  attitude  and  actions  ui  r(lation  to  the 
(•(•iitlict  and  its  aliihty  to  pre\t  nt  tin-  war?  It  must  he 
rtniemlii  red    that    (\(rythin^    \vas    secret. 

On  the  occasion  of  a  German  All  Souls"  festival  held 
in  I'apaume  jiarish  church  on  Noxcmlur  1,  I'.Ht,  in 
coiiuiK  niorat  lou  o|'  the  fallt  n  soldiers,  a  sermon  was 
jMi  athi  d  111  winch  thr  fojioxsiiii,'  passa^'r  occurred:  "To 
our  III'  Mill  s  t  h' sc  ;4ra\ts  ale  a  L^iuMiitic  nproach.  hut 
to  Us  t  hi  \  Will  hi  a  saeri  d  iiKinonal  in  times  to  conic. 
'I'lioM-  who  ha\«  sown  t  li<  wind  shall  nap  the  whiilwmd. 
J, I  (I  (1  Imi/  III/  I'ltli/  //Cull  IS  and  hy  small  L'Toiips  o|  s(  llivh 
parti-aii--,  '  I  Ic  \  ha\  <  sown  m  the  lli  sh  and  tin}'  shall 
r<  ap    (f  st  I  net  loll.  \\r     Iiiaki-     hold     to     s\Siar     hrjorc    God 

that  Tic  Ini:  (  .s'/U//  ///  //((  .^jitiit  I'l  nultlt  iiu.siit  >s  iiud 
ji,(i(i.  To  u>  th<-  war  i-  a  iiionumiiital  sinnluid 
ih'ilti  r  that  touch's  till'  mill  riuosl  In  art  of  a  nation 
whiili    ha^   risi  n    Ml    uiiit\-,    wliieh     has     Ixtu    outra;^i(i    in 


The  German  View  oe  the  Wak         *j(ii 

its  most  sucrccl  sciitiiiHiits  and  luis  l»c(ii  jorcrd   into  y,!/'- 
dc fence. 

Dr.  Sclu'pj),  scliool  inspector,  cinlxxlicd  in  .in  article 
entitled  ''  Scliool  and  War,"'  which  apjx  an d  in  Du  Wmlif 
on  March  20,  I'.M.'),  several  items  of  adsiee  on  [points 
connected  with  the  war,  which  the  yonthl'nl  pnpiK  should 
take  to  heart.  He  said  //////•  al'm  :  "  'I'lie  pnpils  must 
understand  that  we  aw  carryiiiL''  <'ii  the  li^dit  of  //;////  and 
ri'^ht  a«,'ainst  fulseliood  titid  dectil  and  airainst  British 
perlidy  ;  that  <i()<)d  f'dilh  with  us  has  not  liic<)in'-  an  einpt\- 
phrase,  hut  that  we  stand  lirni  and  resolute  Ix  side 
our  ally,  and  that  to  he  a  (iertiuni  in(  ans  to  h.-  true  to  the 
bottom  of  one's  soul.  They  must  know  that  wi-  are 
fifrhtinir  for  pence,  and  not  out  of  a  pure  lust  nf  cnn'i'tt.st 
as  Russia  does,  nor  out  lA'  icn<^ti'ulnes.s  as  l-'raner  do(  s,  nor 
out  ot  sordid  greed  as  Kn<,dand  does.""  \'v\  at  the  saiu'- 
time  he  exjilains  and  in  so  doin^'  contradicts  the  ahoNc 
that  ''the  children  must  above  all  understand  to  what 
Germany  owes  her  tj^rowth.  In  ISdO  we  t'ouLrht  for  Pnissin's 
hegemony  in  Germany;  in  1S7()-71  we  attained  our  unity 
and  Germany's  position  in  Europe  as  a  Great  J*(i:ccr  :  in 
the  present  war  it  is  our  duty  to  secure  and  to  (xtcjid 
this  ])osition  as  a  xcorld-J'oxcer.  .  .  .  The\'  are  furth-r  to 
understand  that  we  must  lune  eUm-e-room  in  the  world. 
and  jiarticularly  on  the  seas  for  our  trade." 

At  a  mcetiniT  of  teachers  and  mothers  held  at  the  Berlin 
Town  Hall  in  Xovemher  tUll  to  discuss  the  suhjret.  '•  How 
are  we  to  talk  to  the  children  alxnit  the  war  ?  ""  it  was 
agreed  to  teach  certain  humane  jM-ineiples.  as.  t"or  instance, 
that  hatred  of  others  nuist  not  he  inculcated  in  the  childish 
mind  and  that  one  nuist  eultivati'  the  sentiment  of  com- 
passion and  brotherhood,  etc.  liut  it  was  aKo  i-(s,.l\rd 
that  the  children  were  to  be  told  that  ""  (iermaiiy  is  eieja::!  d. 
through  no  fault  of  her  oxen,  in  -.x  fv^ht  j'^r  hi  r  i  usf,  nr,.  ,i 
fight  of  life  and  (hath,  -wherefore-  (lirmaus  must  suff-r  and 
bear  all  and  must  submit  to  every  saeritiee. 

So  we  see  that  the  rising  generation  is  systematically 
to  be  drilled  into  the  belief  that  Geriuiimi  hmrs  nn  I!.:r»r 


262        Before,  During,  and  Afier  1014 

in  the  brinr^iriti  nlxiui  of  tlic  :i<;r  and  that  she  :cas  the  attdcked 
party.  This  ^vill  Ixcomc  to  tlie  ^rowiiij;  ptnc-ration  an 
imas^ailal)Ic  truth,  for  there  are  priil);ihly  very  few  that 
will  study  the  ori^'in  of  the  war  from  other  than  (ierinan 
sources.  How,  in  such  cireuin^taiie*  s,  will  it  he  j)ossii)le 
to  a\oi(l  hatiii;^  other  nations  who  '"  have  attaeketl  (ierniany 
and  forceil  her  into  a  life  and-dt  ath  stru^'^le  for  her 
existence  ?  "" 

The  same  line  is  tak( u  in  a  work  entitled  The  Truth  alxiut 
thr  W(n\  hein;,'  a  statement  from  otlieial  sources  compiled 
in  August  I'.tll  hy  ten  well-known  authors,  of  whom  a 
couple  are  memlxrs  of  the  Ileichstat:,  and  who  include 
Dr.  Xaumann.  Count  ()pp(  rsdorff.  Dr.  Mrzher^er,  Dr. 
H"hrl»aeh,  and  oth<rs.  Tin-  hlame  for  the  war  is  first 
and  hiremost  j)lae((l  on  l{ussia"s  shoulders.  "  TI(C  Tsar 
hiiirs  tujnvi'  (I'xl  (itid  ji'istrril!/  thr  r<  '^jum.^ihili')/  for  lia\'in^ 
allowed  hims,Ift<»  he  terrori/'-d  lt\'  an  unserupu]"Us  war 
party.  ...  It  was  n'>t  imlil  I-'ranee  ami  HelL'iinu  ////'/ 
till  nt.^i  li  t  s  :ljliil,d  Iiil'j,'uni  >ii  ulriillti/  that  oui-  troops 
entered  the  countrx'.  France  and  Russia  have  eomliined 
to  dfstriiii  us.  .  .  .  'J'he  (ierman  iMnperor  soULrht  to  induce 
t  li<-  Tsar  to  ])reserve  p(  ace,  hut  he  was  rrui  lli/  disufipcinli  il." 
etc. 

This  work  was  translated  into  Swedish  in  order  to 
inthi<  iici-  Swedish  opinion  in  fa\-our  of  (iermany,  and  is 
pn  taeed  hy  "A  \N'ord  to  the  Swdish  Pifple."  I  L:i\'e  a 
f<  u  extracts:  ""()ui'  hur  af  piiirr  is  part  of  our  national 
spuit.  .  .  .  I{ut  w«- ai'e  coiiipclhd  t  o  he  a  nat  ion  of  soldiers 
s<  I  tliat  W(  nia\  remain  fri  e.  .  .  .  W,  jnil  niir  tnisl  in  (iml 
and  fpi  -in  aiiii(ht  tin  din  of  hat  t  h-  w  <■  app(  alt  o  \  ou  no!  t  o  Ix  - 
li<  \.  t  h'  inal'Aohnt  li<s  spread  aliroad  h\- our  I  ri'inies.  .  .  . 
\\  (  h'  II'  \e  t  iiat  (li  niunni  lammt  }i,  I  ifdi  <  d  I  r'  >\\\  the  surface 
of  tjie  L'lohe.  \i<\\  know  that  onr  p-oj,],-  Pas  i_'i\(  II  hirtli 
1o  <_'ieat  tliink<rs  and  poets,  \\||o,i  ann  aho\  .■  all  was  to 
1  iirt  lier  the  can  ^'  of  huniaint  \  .  'I' he  names  .  .f  ( ;,  >,  the  and 
Kant    are   r<\eiene((j   all    the    nsoiM   o\  .  r.   and   t  heie   is   no 

culture     without     these    'Mallts    o|     ''emus."    (te. 


The  German  View  of  the  War         20,3 

It  will  1)0  <j[athcr((l  from  tho  forr^roinj?  how  puhlir  opinion 
in  Germany  had  been  led  astray  when  thr-  war  hrok'-  out, 
and  how  the  Cicrnians  were  hypnoti/cd  hy  the  otlicial 
declarations.  Not  a  word  of  the  untiring,'  efforts  of  (in  at 
Britain,  France,  and  Russia  to  avoid  the  war  hv  media- 
tion ;  tlu^  Kmperor  Wiiham  was  '"  enieliy  disappoint* d 
in  his  apjK'al  to  the  Tsar,  although  we  know  thai  the  Tsar 
proposed  to  him  that  the  dispute  sliould  he  n  r(rr(<l  to 
The  Hat^nie  Tribunal.  Xo  outsider  can  eonecixc  in  what 
way  (iermany  was  threatened  by  her  neighbours  ;  no 
State  has  ever  thoULjIit  of  "  effaeinj,'  (iernian\'  ""  or  di  pri\  iiiLT 
the  Germans  of  their  freedom. 

All  these  fancies  hav{>  i)een  suf^f^ested  j)V  pohtieal 
hypnotists  who  want  a  nation  of  self-deny in(r  patriots  and 
ever  so  much  money  from  the  Reichstafj.  And  w(  11  have 
they  done  their  work. 

But  to  sjieak,  in  conjunction  with  the  war.  of  the  German 
thinkers  who  have  jrnided  humanity,  as  was  don<'  in  the 
above  appeal  to  the  Swedish  people  and  on  many  oth«r 
occasions,  and  to  brinfj  in  the  names  of  (io(  the  and  Kant 
tliis  is  a  little  too  extravajrant.  I  have  already  spoken  of 
these  ^reat  men  (p.  50),  but  T  showed  that  tiuy  w(  re 
diametrically  opposed  to  the  self- seek ins,^  \vorld-])ohCy 
which  has  come  to  the  fore  in  Prussia  since  Risniarek's 
time.  Goethe  and  Kant  would  have  execrated  a  liethmann- 
IIollwcfT,  a  Bcrnhardi,  and  the  like,  had  they  Ii\((l  in  this 
accursed  time. 

In  the  compilation  entitled  Dir  J'rrnirJitufm  drr  rHulL^chrn 
WeUmdchI  ("The  Destruction  o'i  British  ^Vorld-^ow(  r  "") 
(lOl.j)  we  find  an  article  by  l^r.  S.  Iledin  headed  ""  (Germany 
and  the  Xorthern  States."'     I  crive  tlu'  followino-  (juotat  ions  : 

"All  Gennans  know  that  their  eoimtvy  is  the  victim 
of  an  aitack  hi/  a  }r(i<].\i(\  ilic  Icddinii  intiiilx  r  e/'  uhi,-h 
is  Euilland  whose  one  idea  is  to  duuif'ilitf  (i,rt)h:>iu. 
Germany  is  ho-litino-  for  her  exist ( nee.  whiNt  the 
EuLrlish  have  tak(-n  up  arms  to  disircji  tltr  j^rn\j),riti/ 
which  their  German  kinsmen  have  won  by  hard  and 
honourable  toil. 


264        Before,  During,  and  After  lOli 

"  A  fresh  wind  is  })l(>uiii<:  on  the  German  front,  hut  how 
do  matters  stand  at  home  up  in  the  North  ?  In  (iernuiny 
they  act  :  in  ilw  \orth  thtjf  s{tnj)!i/  talk.  They  apphuid  a 
dfhisiit-  judcf  wliieh  in  rcahty  is  a  dtafh  sh^r}). 

If  our  j)coj>le  do  not  now.  \c}u  n  frttdom  tint!  ])trprlnal 
pcacf  txckon  lo  the  'ufiolc  'unrlil,  rcdlizi'  lln  ir  duty  and  their 
priijxr  pUicc  in  the  (itrrnnnic  lij\-siruii'dl(\  then  truly  tlie 
daNs  of  our  nation  arc  munhered.  If  thf  h<»ur  lias  not 
struck  when  wr  should  puss  on  to  action,  then  surely  it  will 
nevtr  strike,  and  it  will  he  all  up  witli  us.  He  who  is 
eontt-nt  to  remain  a  spectator  at  a  time  of  such  colossal 
haj)penin;.'s  as  this  is  nnt  xiorthi/  to  live  !  " 

This  nonsense  is  accepted  with  the  greatest  dili^'ht 
a.s  a  N'aluahle  contrihution  to  the  ahove-mentioned  work, 
and   Iltdins  name  heads  the  list  of  eollahorators  on  the 

Co\(T  I 

Has  Hrdin  tak<  n  leave  of  his  senses  ?  Does  he  not 
know  that  (iermany  has  nt  ver  Ixcn  attacked  hy  any 
Power,  hut  w(iit  into  the  war  to  make  coium<>ii  cause 
with  Austria  and  has  hers(  If  attacked  HilLfuun.  an  ac-t 
which  made  lMi;:land  her  enemy  ?  Truly  the  time  has 
come  to  put  an  end  to  the  exploits  of  t his  ( Jerman  Doctor, 
his  revilement  hoth  of  KuLrhmd  and  of  Sweden.  This 
llunkeydom  and  toadyism  towards  (iermany.  which  is 
as  unhlushiiiL,'  as  it  is  lackinLT  in  tact  and  fxilitical  judt,'ment. 
mav  do  harm  to  Sweden  in  the  eyes  of  other  Powers, 
especially  if  it  he  ii<>t  reali/i d  that  his  psychical  cfiuilihrium 
has  heeu  affected  and  that  there  is  a  LTrowini,'  opinion  in 
.Sw<(l<  (1  which  di  iiduuccs  his  \iews  on  the  war.  on  (lermanv 
and  nil  ( i(  rmanisrii,  etc.  To  his  asscifiou.  made  hetore 
th<'  (i'Tuian  pull!  ic.  t  hat  ""  e\  crv  r<  al  .Sw  <  (!<•  feels  '  (i«  iiuam- 
cally."  ""  hy  \\lii(li  t<  rm  In-  implies  sympathy  f<ir  (it  rman 
nulitary  (iiiinaiiisin,  I  r<  pl\  (  uiphat  ically  that  this 
mo\-em<  rit  miets  with  ii'i  i(sp«.tis.  iu  .Swnhn.  and  I  may 
r' iniud  the  11  adi  r  of  the  ;inti[iathy  towards  (iermany, 
.aini  espi  eialK'  towaids  Prussia,  whieh  w.as  tejt  in  .Swideii 
foi-  iiian\  \(  .ars  on  ae<-.iuiit  ot'  th<-  I  ).irio  ( i(  ruian  W.ar  of 
isr.j  a!,,!  i!,,-   l'rari.-o  (ii  niian  W.ir  of  isTo.      We  f.  It   like 


Waging  a  Dkfensive  War  205 

Scandinavians  should  feel  in  the  former,  and  cntc  rtaincd 
the  Hvchcst  sympathies  for  France  in  the  Iatl(  r,  althouj^'h 
we  arc  not  united  l)y  any  ties  of  hlood  with  the  I'Viiieh 
nation.  At  the  present  time  most  Swedes  are  animated 
with  tlie  deepest  sym[)athy  for  the  IJclLjians.  As  n  <^rards 
the  alle<,'ed  stru<,'j:fle  of  the  (iermaiiie  race,  I  eonteud  that 
if  the  Swedes  sliould  side  witli  an\  nation  on  aectiunt  of 
bonds  of  (Jermanie  kinship,  it  sliouhl  he  with  the  Hritisli, 
who  are  a  purer  Ciermanie  race  than  the  (i<  rmaiis,  se(  iui,' 
that  the  hitler  contain  many  foreiuni,  and  jtarticuhirly 
Shiv,  ck'ments. 

Althou<,di  it  seems  as  if  it  liad  ht come  the  pre%  ailing 
notion  in  Ciermauy  tliat  the  country  has  Ixcn  attaek<<l 
and  is  tlierefore  carryiuL,'  on  a  chl'ensi\c  war.  we  tind 
here  and  there  a  (ierman  who  (h)(.s  not  share  tliis  view, 
as,  for  instance,  Maximilian  Ilarihn,  ■\vhi>m  I  ha\c  ipiotid 
to  the  effect  that  Ciermany  xcdnlid  the  :nir  and  was  tint 
forced  into  if. 

The  (hplomatic  })apers  puhHshed  l)y  the  heHiu'erent 
nations  in  their  Wliitc,  Blue,  Rtd.  Yilhrx,  and  (//( //  /i(inl:s\ 
together  with  tlie  speeches  of  their  Premiers  and  I-'orej^jn 
Ministers  and  otlier  ollieial  communications  hrnu;;ht  to 
lifjlit  after  the  l)ooks  were  j)uhHshed,  furnish  u>  with  tlie 
chief  material  for  elucidating  the  origin  of  the  \N'orld  War 
and  ])assinLr  judgment  on  the  attitudes  and  actions  of  the 
various  States. 

A  cc)m])arative  and  critical  stud_\-  of  all  these  data  ought 
to  enable  us  to  tlnd  the  truth  about  the  origin  ^A'  the  war. 
K\ervthiug  one-sided  or  whit'h  has  been  unfairly  stated 
should  be  ignored.  Although  the  publisht  d  papers 
of  each  State  naturally  support  its  jxtint  of  vit  w.  it 
should  nevertheless  be  ])ossil)le.  fVom  ineont  rovertil>le 
facts  and  positive  stattinents  acknowledged  by  b"th 
sides  to  be  authentic,  to  draw  eonelu^ious  devoid  of 
bias. 

To  an  imj)artial  observer  uncomieetid  with  (iennany 
and  the  otlier  belliLrei'ent   countries,   it    is  clearly  eviilent 


266       Before,  During,  and  After  191  i 

from    these    ollieial    j)ul)lieati()ns    and    otiier    rej)orts    and 
information  held  to  he  of  weight  and  inijiortanee  : 

(1 )  Tiiat  .iitslri<i  :c<is  tlw  <i!t(ickin<i  juirli/  in  the  war  against 
Serhia,  whieli  ^'ave  rise  to  th(*  World  ^^'ar,  and  that 
Cernuiny  stipjxirlcd  Austria  in  her  action. 

(2)  That  (icrmanii  zees  not  attackt'd  hy  Russia,  France, 
and  Cireat  lUitain. 

(;})  That  tlu'  -car  rauld  have  hcifi  (iioidcd  had  Austria 
and  (itrinany  at,'reed  to  the  mediation  ))roj>osals  of  the 
I-'jiti  iitc  Powers  in  the  Serbian  conlliet. 

(i)  That  (nrnunn/  atldchcd  liih^ium,  in  violation  of  her 
<:uarantec(I  neutrality,  therehy  forcint;  Iieli,Mum  into  a 
(ji  fensi\e  war. 

(."»)  That  no  proiifs  crist  Ifnit  litliiimn  failed  in  Jur  dtitics 
(IS  a  miitnil,  and  that  the  documents  foutul  in  her  War 
Otiiee,  l)\'  which  it  Avas  souLfht  to  <  stahlish  this  charge, 
ri'itiil  no  jdtin  'd  dfldck  on  (it  r/noni/.  hut  merely  point  to 
certain  ])reeauf  ionary  measures  in  the  e\(  nt  of  attack  hv 
that  Power  amply  juslitied  in  the  li^ht  of  (iermain's 
action  on  the  outljreak  of  war. 


XII — nnilinui'd 
THE   WORM)   WAR  OF    l!»l  { 

E.    The    Rarhaiuty   or  'iiir.   War  :   No   Wai:    i-.r.iwi  i.n 
Civilized  Nations  mas  r.vi.it  \\\:v.\  makki-.d  isv  so  mic  ii 

CUUELTV  and    SaVACKKV. 

Tin:  present  \V()rl(l  Wwv  iinli;i|)i)ily  marks  a  return  to 
tlu>  niort'  bestial  warfare  of  former  tiims.  Man\-  wars 
luive  l)een  comparat  iwly  free  from  delilxrate  (1«  ^t  met  i\(- 
iiess  and  cruelty  in  its  real  sense,  hut  the  pi-csi  iit  struL''_'I<' 
has  in  numherless  instances  heen  waL5<(l  -with  ;i  harharoiis 
brutality  \vliich  c()n^titutes  a  shameful  blot  on  Ihii^tian 
Europe,  a  civilized  continent,  the  home  of  philo-,oph\-  and 
science. 

The  Greeks  and  Romans  of  ant icpiity.  who  stood  Jii^JK  st 
in  culture  amonij  the  jieojjles  then  known  to  history,  called 
other  races  barhnriinis  beeausi-  they  laekid  their  ei\ih/.a- 
sion  and  refinement.  I'lvi-r  since,  the  term  "'  barbarians  *" 
has  been  applied  to  unci\-ilized  and  cruel  jieoplcs.  races 
which  lacked  I'eclinLls  of  hmnanity. 

Rut  civilized  nations  camiot  always  be  sure  that  they 
hav(.'  subdued  their  brutal  and  barbarous  instincts,  and  in 
great  nphea\'als,  violent  and  bloody  reNolut ions,  frroeious 
indi\"iduals  art-  found  who  are  guilty  of  cru*  1  and  savage 
acts.  The  same  applies  to  many  wars  wa^icd  liy  ei\ili/.ed 
nations,  and  more  than  ev(>r  to  the  World  War  which  lias 
now  been  rat,unn'  for  nine  months.^^ 

^Var  u^'uerally  has  a  hurlhiriiin::  inlluenee  and  Jiruf,:!ii(-s; 
even  the  most  highly  civilized.      It  places  the  warri'ir  on  ;i 

*    This  work  w.i-;  written  in  M  ircli   I'.'l">.      /'  -;;! -''i.'"". 


268        Before,  During,  and  After  1911- 

Icvtl  with  tlie  bfd.st  <>j  prtij  and  rrduccs  him  to  the  condition 
and  the  instincts  of  primitive  man.  lirutnl  also  means 
V)estial,  ferocious. 

Predat(»ry  htasts  regard  their  hvr  prey  merely  as  an 
article  of  food  which  tliey  ha\'e  aj)j)ropriatcd.  and  an-  (juite 
inchfferent  to  its  aijony.  Man  aKo  aecpiircs  the  yeneral 
character  of  beasts  of  prey,  and  thiir  indifference  to  the 
sufferin(:s  of  animals  and  hmnan  l)ein;,'s  when  these  are  tlu' 
object  of  his  attack  in  tin-  chase  and  in  war.  All  primitive 
and  barbarous  j)eoples  ha\'e  shown  the  ^neattst  callousness 
and  cruelty  towanis  their  enemies,  and  ci\ili/.e(l  nations 
liave  often  been  no  whit  better.  Tiuv  have  oppressed 
and  ill-treated  conquered  racts  in  a  imi^t  revolting,'  manner, 
as.  for  instance,  the  I*ortuL,'u<se  in  Afiica,  the  Sj)aniards  in 
America,  and  the  Kn<,dish  in  India,  ( te. 

]\'nr  ilsclf  (Ichtufuinizcs-  :  the  combatants  jiave  to  think 
of  themselves,  of  their  defence,  of  sahation  from  eviT- 
thrt  ateiiinL,'  dc  ath,  and  they  are  apt  to  be  worked  uj)  into  a 
state  of  fury  which  turns  them  into  wild  biasts,  impelhd 
l)y  the  hist  of  murder  and  destruction. 

'J'he  inst  inets  of  the  beast  of  prey  are  latent  in  numbi  rless 
hiuiian  beings,  tiieir  brutality  bein;,'  lar^jely  due  to  ahiiistn 
or  tjie  heriditary  transmission  of  (pialities  whicji  dis- 
tini^MiislMd  their  forefathers  in  earlier  phases. 

Hy  incidental  causes,  such  as  fear  of  dauL'tr,  insult,  etc., 
many  people  who  ;ire  otherwise  kind  and  jxaceable  may 
be  dri\cn  into  eommitfiiiLj  \iolent  and  senseless  acts, 
assaults  on  persons,  etc.  The  «)rdinary  citizen,  wjio  in 
j)eac(  time  rr^r.trds  ofher  nations  with  sympathy  and 
fellow  feilinj/,  colloid.  Is.  when  he  has  Ixe  ii  called  out  in 
war  to  liu'ht  aL'aiiist  tli-in.  that  thev  are  contt  inpt  ible 
creature  s  who  de  s(  rve'  no  me  rev  anel  wlie>m  it   is  his  d\it\- 

te)  (jest  roV. 

I-'ar  fre>m  marking:  pio^Te  ss  in  himiamty  anel  mutual 
unelerstaiidin-j,  the-  nations  now  e-onfiont  eine-  another  as 
eleaeJK  eiie-nue  >.  all  t  hrou^h  t  he  fault  eif  celt  ain  st  ;ite  snien, 
anel  barbarity  anel  cruelty  now  llouiish  in  the  niieist  e.f  a 
ee.ntuiint   r<L.'are|ed  as  tin-  ci  iif  re-  e  if  ei\ili/,at  ie>n      jusf  as  if 


The  Barbarity  of  the  War  i>G9 

war  were  raf,Mn^r  hftwtcn  tribes  of  |)riinitivc  sav;i<,'(s.  In 
fact,  it  is  a  horrible  atavintic  phenoiiu  iion  that  we  are  now 
calU'd  upon  to  witness. 

Bernhanh  and  other  war  pohtieians  liave  soui^Mit  syste- 
matically to  brin<,'  out  the  li;,ditin;,'  instincts  of  the  (i*  rniatis 
by  rcniinchn*,'  them  of  their  "  ori<,Mnal  warhke  proj^n- 
sitics." 

Mankind  is  beinj,'  stunted  in  its  development,  the  <arth 
is  becoming'  a  hell,  the  sun  no  ion<rer  shines  as  (.1  yore,  and 
there  is  darkness  in  the  souls  of  the  people.  .Mi^^'ht  has 
usurped  the  place  of  ri<,rht,  but  has  in  a  trulv  .Satanic 
manner  been  "sicklied  o'er""  with  attractive  nanx  s, 
such  as  patriotism,  statecraft,  selfdefence,  fate,  in- 
terest; a^ri^ressivc  war  is  exalted  and  jxace  striving's  are 
derided  on  the  pretext  that  a  loftier  culture  is  beiiif,' 
proiuulifated. 

What  a])palling  degeneracy  ! 

It  is  very  (hllicult  to  form  a  general  judgment  of  a  whole 
nation.  The  nuijority  of  peoi)le  in  a  civilized  country  arc 
gentle  and  ])eaccable  beings,  but  there  is  always  a  leaven 
of  vicious  individuals.  The  Germans  have  in  their  news- 
papers and  other  writings  which  the}'  have  scattered 
abroad  to  meet  accusations  of  atrocities  conunitted  during 
the  war,  declared  that  '"  we  are  no  barbarians, ""  and  have 
]M)inted  out  what  Germany  has  done  for  universal  culture. 
That,  however,  is  one  thing  and  nobody  denies  it.  But 
quite  another  nuitter  is  the  jiolicy  of  tlu'  leading  statesiuen, 
the  war,  the  violation  of  the  neutrality  of  other  eoiuitrits, 
and  certain  barbarous  acts  committed  in  the  war  by 
Gernums  as  well  as  by  others,  and  which  eaimot  be 
reasoned  away  by  those  at  home  declaring  :  ""  \'\^  ist 
nieht  wahr."" 

Nobody  can  say  of  his  own  nati<»n  :  "'  We  are  no  bar- 
barians "'  ;  nol)ody  can  say  in  war-time  that  it  is  only  the 
enemy  who  is  cruel,  that  t)iu"s  own  nation  is  not  guilty  ot 
such  things,  and  that  all  stories  to  this  effect  are  lies 
disseminated  bv  the  enemv.     The  Germans  have  been  all 


270        Before,  Duking,  and  After  1914 

too  catjir  to  rtsoit  to  this  latter  cU  vic-c  durinj:  tlic  grout 
World  \Var.  1I(  re,  for  iiiNtauft',  is  uii  apptal  distributiii 
very  widily  in  luutral  couiitrirs  by  a  group  til' distinguislRcl 
Gennaii  ladits  ;  it  is  addrtsscd  *'  An  die  Frautii  dcs 
Auslaiulis,"  and  contains,  inlcr  itlid,  the  following  juissagc  : 
"  W'v  niotluTs,  wives,  and  sisters  woukl  feel  that  we,  too, 
wtri-  guilty  if  German  men  had  really  in  this  war  offindetl 
against  the  dictates  of  culture  and  humanity,  liut  xce  knoxc 
that  our  liusbands  and  sons,  our  brothers  and  friends  fnivf 
not  ctiisfd  to  hf  the  rcprisititntivts  of  Cnrnum  culturi'  when 
tluy  have  given  their  lives  for  the  defence  of  the  Father- 
land. No  one  knowing  (Germany,  the  morality  of  her 
jxople,  her  advanced  ])oj)ular  educ-ation,  the  discipline  and 
order  in  her  public  life,  can  seriously  belie\c  that  the  war 
has  ctverthrown  these  monuments  of  (ierman  culture  and 
suddenly  comj)letely  tran.^funiud  litr  pfoplf.""  Whilst  tlic 
aj)j)eal  protests  against  "the  re\'olting  atroeitiis  which 
the  misguided  IJelgian  population  have  perpetratt-d  on  our 
troojjN."  the  latter  arc  exonerated  because  they  "'were 
farci'd  into  Idkitii!,  ;/i-<-w.s«r<  .s  Tiecessitated  by  all  the  manifr--la- 
tions  ui fninc-tircur  warfare." 

No  one  can  answer  lor  what  is  done  in  war  in  the  heat 
of  a  sanguinary  <ngaLr'"ni«nt.  Vet  it  s|  rikes  one  as  pt  cuiiar 
that  in  tlie  abo\-e  ap])(al  the  (ierinan  |ieople  are  made  out 
to  l)e  so  moral,  so  lofty  in  tlu  ir  conee  ptions,  that  there  arc- 
no  bad  indi\  iduals.  All  countries,  unfort  miat  ely.  ha\e  a 
fairly  Iarv:e  spiinking  of  rougii,  un* dueattd,  and  dangerous 
indi\i(InaN  who  in  normal  eireinnst ane(  s  eonuuit  criminal 
acts.  Hut  this  is  no  ii  asun  for  calling  the  whole  nation 
coarse  o:-  barb.M' >ms.  and  most  of  its  units  arc  hououiable 
individii.iU.  'i'jic  .S\\(  ti(  s  arc  undonbti dU  ;i  cultintd  and 
moral  nation,  y.  I  statistics  sh-.w  that  in  I '.>o7  elusc  .m  -jooo 
Were  sentenced  fur  serious  crime-,  Mlirti-  to  the  diath 
jHiialfv).  and  nearly  ll.UdO  wire  c"n\ict(d  of  K  sser 
crimes. 

It'  We  turn  to  (ierman),  \\r  lin<l  in  the  Stiiti^'il:  dts 
diul.silitii  liiiclits  (I'.MiT).  .lit.ti.U(S,ii.  \'<>r  the  li\c  year 
jienod  1  .s'.^.^    I'.xi'j,  the  |ollo\Mn^  crunmal  statistics  : 


Cunvic- 
tionu 

V.arly 

!*J 

IH 

KiT 

•Mi 

oil 

lOJ 

!)1.N1() 

iN.'.HiJ 

'jr,,7!»S 

.")..!.',!» 

•_'•-', «i(;7 

I. .",::;{ 

sr,,;!;i() 

17, (M. 7 

lli.TI'J 

•J,:.  I'j 

Savagery  Between  Civilized  Xations    '271 


Naturo  of  criino 

Murder 
Mimsluu^rlitcr 
Uobbcry  with  vioK  ik-c   . 
Severe  bodily  injury 
Sli^fit  Ixxliiy  injury 
Violation  of  doniieiie 
Petty  theft    . 
Serious  Ihi  ft 


It  is  tlius  rvidcut  tli.il  tlurc  air  alwa\^  tIi«iUsaii(K  of 
GrriiKUis  who  will  coininit  i)riital  and  criiiiinal  acts  and 
cannot  !)(>  n-^ardcd  as  rcprcscntat i\(s  of  (.crman  ciilfurc 
Many  such  primitive  individuals  ha\<-  |)rol)al)l\-  taken  part 
in  the  present  war  and  eonnnifted  atroeifits  on  eneniv  soil 
with(jut  liavin<T  i)een  eoniix  lied  to  tlo  so  i)y  fninc  tirtur 
warfare.      Proofs  are  not  laekiuL,'. 

It  is  really  hardly  to  be  wondereil  at  that  cruelties  have 
been  perpetrated  by  German  soldiers,  seeinjr  that  German 
military  writers  never  tire  of  deelarinj^  that  war  must  be 
waged  with  f rightfulness.  Thus  General  J.  von  Ilartmann 
wrote  in  his  work  The  Xcccssity  and  Humanity  ufWar  (1 877 ) 
as  follows  : 

"  The  enemy  nation  must  not  be  spared  the  distress 
and  horrors  oficar.  That  private  individuals  should  be  hard 
hit  thereby,  that  they  should  have  to  serve-  as  a  warning 
exam])le,  is  very  regrettable  on  their  account  ;  but  to  the 
people  this  severity  is  a  useful  and  ntereiful  blessing.  When 
a  war  breaks  out  between  nations  terrori.'^ni  bece)mcs,  from 
a  military  ])oint  of  view,  an  indispensable  principle." 

The  pamphlet  of  the  German  Great  General  Staff 
entitled  Kriei^sg^ebraueh  iin  Landkriege  (190*2)  says  that 
''  every  means  of  waging  war,  the  abstention  from  \vliich 
would  cause  the  failure  of  the  object  of  the  war,  may  be 
regarded  as  justiiied.'' 


A  Geniuin  tnanifesto  to  the  civili::ed  jintions  in  answer  to 
the  reports  of  (icrman  atrocities  in  tlie  in\asiou  of  Hcliiium 
was  sent  out  some  time  a<i'o  b\'  ninet\'  three  of  Cicniianx'  s 


272       Before,  During,  and  After  1911- 

uuM  faiiii>u>>  mm.  iiicliKliiiL,'  Hrnitano.  DtiNsmami.  Kiickcn, 
Harckcl,  Ilarnak,  li(  rlianit  llauptnianii,  Max  Kliii^cr, 
Larnprrclit,  Li>/.t.  O^twald.  ScliiiiolKr,  SiuKTinaiin,  aiul 
S.  Wa^'iH  r.      Ill  re  is  an  ixci  rpt  : 

\\r,  the  uiuli  isi^iud  Cm  rriiaii  icpriscntat i\(  s  of  sciciu't' 
jirul  art,  do  hcrt  l>y  suKinnly  pmttst  hifurc  the  civili/rtl 
Work!  ai,'ainst  the  lits  and  caluiniiirs  hy  whicli  our  <  n<ini(s 
have  sou^'ht  to  l)rsinirfli  thr  ri^htiousniss  of  tin-  (icrinaii 
cause.   .   .   . 

■'  //  is  not  true  tliat  in  \vai:in^  war  we  arc  cotiU  in])luou.s'  of 
tlw  la:c  of  Hdtions.  Our  soldiers  coniniit  no  undiscij)lincd 
acts  and  no  cnultics.  .   .   . 

"  //  is  Hill  trut-  tliat  our  soldiers  have  taken  tlie  li\'cs  of 
civilian  citi/.i  ns  iniUss  tJuij  have  hccii  comptUfd  to  do  so, 
driven  hy  the  la:c  of  necessity.   .   .   . 

"  It  is  not  true  that  our  trooj^s  have  rcautonly  destroyed 
LoUKiin,  etc.    .    .    . 

"  liditve  us  !  Hijit  \-e  us  that  in  tiiis  strutjijle  we  shall 
march  onward  to  the  end  as  a  civilized  j)eo|)le.  a  |)eoj)lc  to 
which  the  lurita:,'!-  (.fa  (iotthe,  a  HeethoVeii,  a  Kant  is  as 
sacred  as  its  own  hearth  and  home.  Let  our  names  .and 
our  hoii< >ur  he  our  |)le(l<je  I 

liesidis  this  j.rot.st  from  the  (ierman  intellectuals, 
allot  her  (M)llrct  ive  /;/o/(  ,s7  nf  the  (ii  rrnun  uuivi  rsili(  s  (t  wenty- 
two  in  numlii-r)  was  s.  nt  out.  in  which  the\-  .aitjxaled  to  tin- 
pro  feasors  of  all  ot  h'  r  uni\ersit  ies  ahroad  to  prot(  st  a^rainst 
the  alleviations  of  crutlt\-  which  have  hecn  hnniLiht  au'ainst 
the  (ii-rman  niitliod  of  warfare.  TheN-  plead  that  evi  ry 
uni\e!^it  \  1 1  aehi  r  must  li(  familiar  wit  h  (iei-maii  <"'///j/re  and 
(ierm.ui  wwf  nil  intd  ri  ••<  <!rih,  and  ask  liow  it  can  he  1m  lii  \-ed 
that  ;i  national  .irm\'  which  contain-^  a  larL'-'  piop.  >it  ion  of 
the  tlaeheI•^  .and  sfud^nts  of  (iermaii  uni\i|siti»s  ,•(//;  //<■ 
tlii'irjhf  In  h,  ■jiiilh/  (./  hitrh.irnus  arls  or  ol  dtstro\inL!  t  he 
monuiiH  nts  oj'  culture  e\e.  pi  iind-  r  the  stern  necessity  ol' 
war.      The  .appi  ,al  conehid's  .as  lo||,iws: 

■■  If  in  the  e.iuise  of  this  motistrous  war,  in  which  nur 
jh':p[>  (in  jnrctil  In  jij'h!  not  onU-  foi-  their  pow.r  liut  for 
th-u-  \<i\'  e\is|enee  aiid  culture,   till-   woik  ot'  (lest  met  ion 


Savagery  Between  Civilized  Nations    273 

^V()Ill(l  sfciii  to  he  upcutcr  than  in  other  wars,  and  allx  iL 
many  vahiahic  trcasnrcs  ot"  cnltnrc  have  been  sacrilicid, 
the  rcsponsibililij  tlurtjor  must  rest  wholly  on  the  shoulders 
of  those  who  were  not  content  to  loose  this  in/ainous  -udr 
upon  the  world  hut  have  not  shrunk  i'roni  forcing'  niurderdus 
wea|)ons  uito  the  iiands  of  a  j)eaeeful  jjopulat  ion  .spinrtil 
on  Irt'dchrrousli/  to  (isstiil  our  troops  wjiilst  t  hey  were  t  rust  in^' 
to  the  observance  of  the  aeknowled^^red  usages  of  war  of  all 
civilized  nations.  With  the  allies  /iiiisl  rtsi  tin  hhinu  fmnW  that 
is  now  takin<,' j)laee.  On  them  will  rest  t  he  curse  ol"  history 
for  all  the  irreparable  injur}'  thus  done  to  ci\  ili/at  inn." 

This  aj)|)i'al  sjiows  that  practically  all  represcntaliN  <  s  of 
German  learnini,'  have  in  the  same  nuasure  as  the  (i(  rnian 
nation  as  a  body,  ix'cn  hypnoti/eil  into  Ix  li(\  in*^'  that 
(iennany  was  '"  forced  "'  to  waijc  war  for  her  existence  and 
that  the  whok'  rt>sj)onsil)ility  must  therelore  be  borne  by 
the  iMitente  Powers.  They  did  not  realize  that  history 
can  already  prove  the  ])art  which  (iermany  i)layed  in  the 
orifrin  of  the  war;  they  btlieved  l)lin(lly  in  (iernianys 
right  to  violate  Belgium's  neutrality,  and  they  forgot  that, 
even  if  Germany's  academical  citizens  cannot  be  thought 
guilty  of  barbarous  acts,  there  must  be  many  otlui-s  of  little 
education  in  the  colossal  German  army  who  might  perpe- 
trate acts  of  violence  and  cruelty. 

We  have  seen  what  the  Cierman  intellectuals  at  home  had 
to  say.  Meanwhile  the  (ierman  soldiers  dcltd  the  direct 
oj)posite,  as  can  be  proved  by  their  diaries  found  in  l-'ranee. 
The  following  extracts  may  serve  as  illustrations  : 

'•  Dorf  durch  die  11  Pitniicre  zerstort.  .'5  Frauen  an  den 
Biiumen  crhiingt."  ('"Village  destroyed  l)y  the  11th 
Pioneers,  three  women  hanged  on  trees. "")  Longeville, 
August  24,  191 1. 

"  In  der  Nacht  sind  unglaubliehe  Sachcn  passiert  :  Laden 
ausgcpliindert.  Geld  gestohlen,  Vergewaltigungeii.  Kiufach 
haarstriiubend  !  "'  ("' During  the  night  incredible  things 
have  happened  :  shops  looted,  money  stolen,  acts  of 
})rutality.  Enough  to  make  one's  hair  stand  on  end."") 
Cirey.  August  'J  \. 

s 


274        Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

'■  Das  wuiult  rNcliom-  Dort"  Guv  tlllossus  soil  tranz  iin- 
scliuhli;,'  in  I'laiimuri  aut'mLiani^nii  sciii.  Kin  liatlfaliriT  soil 
;,'«.  stiir/.t  sciu  uiul  dalxi  sciii  (icwihr  los;,'r;;aiimn  ;  ^'K-ich 
ist  auf  iliii  l,'''^c1h>ss(  II  wordrii.  Man  hat  miiiinliclK-  Kin- 
wt'Iiiur  (inrach  in  die  I'laiiuiun  t,'(\vorlrii  I  "  ('"  Tlic 
Ix  aiitiful  \illai:c  of  (iiu'-  tlllossus,  th«iii;,'li  (luiti-  innocriit, 
said  to  ha\i'  Ixin  hurnt  down.  A  cyclist  said  to  have 
fallrii  troiii  iiis  niachiiic.  acciiltntaliy  dischar<,MM^'  his  rilk-  ; 
lie  was  iniiut  (liat(  ly  Wwd  on.  Mali-  inhabitants  havi* 
simply  l)(cn  thrown  into  tlu-  tlanics.'")  Kroin  the  diary  of 
an  o!li((  r  of  the  ITsth  Infantry  Kci^inunt,  First  ('ori)s  of  the 
Saxi'ii  .\riny,  Au^nist  •_'<;. 

Tiiclast  ]>;!;,'<•  of  the  note-hook  of  a  soldier  contains  the 
follow  ini;  :  ■'  .So  hahi-n  wir  S  Iliiviscr  niit  den  Kinwohmrn 
\  ernieiitt  t.  Aus  tinein  Ilause  wurden  allein 'J  Miiinur  mil 
ihi<  n  I'raiK  ri  nnd  ein  IS-jiihri^^es  M:idc-hen  erstoehen.  Das 
Maih  1  kiiiintc  niir  Lrid  tun  deiin  .Sic  niaehte  sojch  unschiil- 
dij^'i  11  Hhck.  al)cr  man  konnte  ;,M-L,'en  die  aufi,'ereLrt<-'  MeiiLje 
niehts  aMsrieht<-n.  d(  nn  dann  sind  es  keine  Mcnscjien 
sondi  rn  Ti'ir.  Wirsind  j«t/l  auf  dcm  We^'c  naeii  .'si  .Ian." 
("And  so  \\<-  (lest  fiiNt  il  (  i^ht  houses  with  inhahit  ants. 
In  on--  house  alone  two  mm  with  tluir  wivts  and  a 
L'irl  of  ei;_diteen  were  run  through.  I  iVlt  sorry  for  the 
fjiri.  she  had  such  an  innocent  look,  hut  one  could  do 
nothiiiLr  aL'ainst  the  e.xeited  iiioh,  for  at  such  times 
the\  ari-  not  m<  n,  hut  heasts.  W'e  are  now  on  the  way 
t..    .S.  dan."") 

Til'  se  diary  jottinifs  are  tak(  ii  from  a  collection  of  some 
forty  in  all  puhjixjied  hy  J.  H.'iher.  the  cilehratrd  I'Vcnch 
[ihilolo^'i-t ,  j.io|V.-,oi-  at  the  Colh'^e  de  I'l-ance,  under  the 
till'  /'h,  (ill/mill  i'riini'<  i!t  inrili  ml  I"  (iiniuni  Tt  --I  i  r/inntf,* 
Mo-,t  ot'theiii  .an  repi.  uliie.  <i  ill  jijiot '  HMa[ihie  fae-muleso 
that  .in\oii.-  can  XI  lor  hnii'-i  ll  wlial  (■'  riiiaii  --oldierN  ha\i- 
\'.!itt'  ii  aln.iit  the  alroeiti.  -,  flie\  lia\t  witni  ---^ed.  ]{('dier 
eomment  >  a^  follow  ^  :  ■■.\ii\oiie  opinniu'  this  pami'lilit 
\'.ill    luid    nouL:ht    liwt    do(•um'llt^    whose   tjeiiuineiw  ss   niust 

'    /,'     (  I iiiu  •,  (ill'  iiiiiui'.a  ll  iiji,  ^  .  ill  ■:  ti'ihiiiL'riiifjf  s  iilli  iuiniiL\  i  .laiuiary 

I  It  1 :,, . 


y 


■  - -'' ,  ^,    .       f'^    -  , 


'I  ■ 


/ 


J 


I'.M  ~linilr    1  it    I  111-    1,1  -I     |i,iL.''-    til  ilii 
"'■     ill  ■    I  Tstli     llit,ii!t[\-    l;. ■_',!. 1.  ; 


Savagery  Between  Civilized  Xations    l'T.I 

at  0!ic(,'  strike  his  t-yc,  if  hv  has  eyes  to  sec  with,  jusl  a>  lii'- 
jitrcK'itic'S  must  strike  liis  liciirt,  il'  iic  lius  a  h(  ;iil.  " 

So  it  is  not  NV(jrth  wliilc  to  deny  tli;it  hnilahty  is  pract  i^  d 
hy  sonic  nations  in  the  World  War  now  ra^'in;,'  ;  it  ()c<ins 
union<,'st  thcni  all,  even  thou<fh  many  individuals  h(  tt-r 
favoured  by  circumstances  are  more  humaiu-. 

Dr.  S.  Iledin,  after  ha\in^'  seen  the  war  at  cImm-  (juaitc-rs, 
writes  :  ''  I'eople  talk  of  modern  warfai<-  ha\  iiii;  h<-en 
iunnanized.  What  a  deplorable  error  I  War  as  now 
ra^in<f  between  civiliztil  nations  is  woise  than  i  scr.  It  is 
waj^ed  on  both  sides  with  n  J'n/r.t/  and  a  I'ti'xili/  which 
bailie  all  descrii)tion.  (Jne  can  tell  that  it  is  a  war  of  life 
and  death."' 

Sometimes  we  c(jme  across  statements  l)y  highly  placed 
ollicers  at  the  front  which  testify  that  war  is  baibaiism. 
Thus  Ciencral  Ilindcnbtn-;^'  remarked  to  a  correspondent  of 
the  Xcuc  Frcic  Prcssc  in  November,  when  Ik-  had  1(  arnt 
that  tiic  Russians  were  <sltirving  and  that  even  the  country 
itself  (Poland)  was  sufferin<^  iVom  famine  :  "  This  is 
regrettable,  but  it  is  Just  us  icdl  lluit  it  shuuld  be  so.  We 
cannot  make  war  sentimentally.  The  more  ruthlissjy 
war  is  wanttl,  the  more  humane  does  it  really  bt  eom--, 
for  that  is  the  l)est  way  to  l)rin<r  it  to  a  rapid  conelusjuii."' 

This  reasoning  has  unfortunately  j)roved  faKe  :  the  war 
has  lasted  since  August,  I'.Ht,  and  will  probably  be  of 
very  long  duration.  But  there  nnist  be  no  mercy  shown  I 
Nothing  but  death,  distress,  destruction  1 

Franc-lircurs,  or  persons  who  in  their  own  country  and  on 
their  own  initiative  seek  to  stay  the  jH'ogress  of  an  iinading 
enemy  arc  [proscribed  by  modern  military  usage,  and  it  has 
been  sought  by  international  agreements  to  prevent  sueh 
defensive  aid,  inasmuch  as  the  regular  armies  aie  held  to  be 
the  sole  belligerents  in  war.  If  sueh  volunteer  lighters, 
formed  into  a  body,  are  io  be  j)erniitted  to  tight,  it  is 
tlecmed  necessary  that  they  should  be  reeogni/ed  by  a 
military  authority,  that  they  should  have  'xritU-n  in-iruc- 
tions  and  should  wear  some  sort  oi'  unifonn,  so  that  tliev 


270       Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

can  Ik-  idiutitucl  as  si»Klitrs.  Hut  tlit-  IVtrcc  o(  circuin- 
stuiK'cs  ulttii  niakrs  this  inij)i)ssiljk-,  and  as  in  reality  it  is 
unrrasunablc  tliat  tlu-  citizrns  of  a  country  rava^ud  hy  an 
cniiny,  wlun  ur^nci  hy  the  iinhaiipy  state  of  tluir  country 
and  thiir  patriotic  ristntnunt  and  (hspnir  [o  injure  the 
enemy  us  Jrdnc-tirturs,  slioukl  he  treatetl  chfferently  from 
.soldiers  and  he  shot  like  vermm  if  caus^dil.  For  instance, 
a  Jrniu-tirtur  may  not  have  had  time  to  procure  a  uni- 
form, or  there  may,  throu<,'h  some  <.lelay  in  the  working 
of  a  C"onserij)tion  Act,  not  have  been  time  to  ngistcr  liim 
as  a  combatant. 

We  know,  however,  that  in  the  Franco-German  \Var  of 
187U  71  the  German  General  Staff  did  not  insist  tluit  all 
combatant  Frenchmen  should  wear  a  unih)rm.  Thcfranc- 
tirt'urs  who  foui^dit  in  that  war  in  tiie  national  blue  blouse 
Were  practically  unrec-o^'iiizable  as  coml)atants,  and  they 
Were,  in  fact,  encouraged  in  a  circular  sent  out  by  tlic 
Trt  feet  of  the  Cote  (lOr  (Xovemlxr  l.sTO)  to  form  little 
pickets  of  thn  (•  or  four  men  and  shoot  d(j\\n  Prussians 
wh(  n  it  could  be  done  witiiout  risk. 

War  is  war,  \var  is  brutality,  whether  orj^'ani/.ed  or 
extemj)oriztcl.  To  hide  in  ambush  and  emi)loy  ruses  of  war 
is  viry  coiumon  amon;^'  ri'^ailar  troojjs;  tluy  dn  not  li^'ht 
w  ith  arms  alone,  t  h<  y  use  j)its  and  mini  s  and  s(  «k  to  deceive 
t  lie  en<  uiv  bv  i)ilin^Mip  loirs  and  l»arrels  to  r«  si-mble  ;,nms,etc. 

As  n<,rar(ls  the  lit  l^iaus,  it  is  clearly  unreasonable  to 
reproach  tluni  lor  crimes  a;,Minst  tlu-  /</:i.v  aj  :t.(ir  and  the 
l(i:i.s  nf'  ridfions,  sccinL,'  that  they  were  drawn  into  the  li^'ht 
ai^'ainst  the  (i(  ruian  iiiNasion  through  the  crime  which 
(ii-rmany  ei>nnnine(l  a;jaiiist  internaf  ioual  law  by  iufriiiijiu;^' 
I>i|;,Mum's  iirutrality.  In  the  face  of  this  r<\(>ltm;4  crime, 
to  which  the  t'liaiici  llor  Hi  t  hiiiann  I  b  >ll  \V(  ;,'  pl(  adcd  f,'uilty 
before  the  Reiehsf a;,',  it  Is  natural  that  many  Belgians 
sjiould  cast  aside  all  scruples. 

(ieriiian\'s  crime  Iociik  d  lar^je  befon  tht  ir  <  yes  and  they 
felt  that  they  must  aveiii,'*-  if. 

How  the  Hel;,'ians  felt  Nvhen  the  Ci<  iiiians  in\aded  and 
(leva  .t  at  e(|   their  laud   ma\    be  (jathereil   from  the  account 


Savagery  Between  Civilized  Nations     277 

which  a  combatant  in  the  war,  a  Bcl^'ian  artist,  to  whom 
I  have  already  referred  (p.  *2*2<)),  ^ave  Mr.  Gustaf  Hcllstrom, 
wlio  passed  it  on  to  the  Da<icn.s  Xijlicttr  :  "  \Vc  know  that 
it  is  all  no  nsc,  hut  we  eannot  h(l|t  thinkinj,'  of  all  llutj  litnr 
burnt  and  destroyed;  we  eannot  helj)  tliinkin;,'  that  they 
have  made  us  a  j)eoj)le  without  a  home,  that  <tur  :iivt.s  and 
children  and  parents  and  brolfurs  mul  sisters  arc  this  \(ry 
night  toiling  like  tramj)s  along  t  he  roads  leading,'  to  Holland 
and  Franee.  .  .  .  When  wi-  think  of  all  this  our  hrains 
almost  give  way.  Wlun  we  think  that  we  lia\c  let  them 
in  as  merehants,  as  hot(l-kee|)(rs,  and  that  they  ha\c 
returned  all  this  with  treaehery,  we  feel  that  it  is  almost 
more  than  we  can  hear. 

"  And  to-day  I  sec  in  the  j)apers  that  they  call  us  txindits  ! 
I  myself  am  an  artist  hy  [irofession,   .   .   . 

"  Do  you  think  we  did  not  know  what  it  would  cost  us  ? 
And  do  you  think  that  such  ovendielniin^  unitij  could  have 
been  brought  about  through  some  Government  or  other 
which  half  the  {)oj)idation  does  not  care  a  ra])  about  — 
having  made  a  secret  treaty  with  another  Power  ?  Does 
any  sane  ]')erson  believe  this  ?  Say  we  were  fools  uiien  xte 
stood  lip  as  one  man,  but  don't  call  us  traitors  and  bandits  ! 
There  are  moments  when  from  the  King  do\vn  to  the 
navvy  we  sim})ly  feel  like  this  :  Sooner  death  and  devasta- 
tion than  to  sit  sleek  and  comfoiiable  by  the  nresi(U-,  To  us 
the  problem  simj^ly  resolves  itself  into  that.  The  King 
need  not  have  spoken,  we  would  have  acted  as  we  did 
anyhow."" 

During  the  early  stages  of  the  Avar  in  Belgium,  the 
German  newsjiajx-rs  circulated  many  stories  of  atrocities 
committed  on  German  soldiers  by  Belgian  civilians,  women 
as  well  as  men  :  mutilation,  gouging-(»ut  of  i'Ncs,  etc. 
Two  oflicial  commissions,  f)ne  civilian  and  one  militar}\ 
were  a]ipointed  by  the  AVar  Ofliee  at  l^rlin  to  investigate 
the  chargt^s.  and  after  exhaustive  incpiiries  tluv  came  to 
the  conclusion  that  in  tiie  state  of  confusion  and  (  xeite- 
ment  which  ]M'e%-ailcd  it  was  (juite  natni-al  that  acts  of 
brutalitv  and  crueltv  should  be  e*.>mmitled  here  and  there 


278        Before,  Dirinc;,  and  After  101-1 

by  all  parties,  hvit  that  on  thr  \vhole  these  aets  liad  been 
preatly  cxaiifjcrated.  The  partietilarly  revoltinf;  stories 
of  the  ;,'ou<,'iiiL:-<>"t  of  eyes  were  formally  ee)iitrailiete(l. 

That  many  of  IJeln^iinns  eivil  j)oj)ulation  tnrned  out  as 
franc-iirturs  a;,'ainst  the  (ierman  iisurjxrs  is  <\i)Iain((l  by 
tlie  faet  that  universal  military  service  IkhI  not  bi(  ii 
introduced,  with  the  r«  suit  that  the  able-bodi((l  nun, 
lilK  (1  with  patriotic  fervour  on  seeinj^  the  enemy  on  their 
'^oil,  tlircw  tii(  ins(h(s  upon  him.  often  doubtless  without 
knowing'  that  th<-  international  law  ^foverninj^  warfare 
forbids  such  Nolunteer  efforts. 

IJut  to  j)imish  (illurs  than  those  cauf^dd  in  the  act  as 
franr-lirt  ins,  and  to  make  entire  villa^'cs  and  towns  suffer 
for  such  attacks,  is  surely  contrary  to  all  aeeej)ted  tenets  of 
warfare  Ix  tweeii  ci\ili/.((l  nation^. 

The  (  inoy  I{.  Khcn  says  in  his  ^r<at  work  on  llif  Ltr.ci 
of  iidr  :  "'In  ]iut  to  (hath  a  lari^c  nuinlnr  for  the 
sak*-  of  one  undi--eo\'(  red  culprit,  or  to  pick  out  at 
random  or  by  drawin;,'  lots  one  or  moic  \ictiiiis  to  atone 
for  an  act  (^f  which,  in  nian\"  eas(  s.  they  ha\(  iu>  Jinnuli  <li!<- 
nhtili^tr,  is  a  proe((lure  which  brands  the  Ix  lliL'cr(  nt  as 
imworthy  to  be  n ckoned  amouLTst  ei\ili/.( d  natious."" 

Article  .")<)  of  the  ^Var  lb  ^I'lal  ions  adoptid  by  'I'iic 
Ila^nie  Coid'erenee  of  lS'.i'.>  contains  tjie  foJlowiiiL,'  passage: 
''  CnlU  (iivf  jnnii.sfnut  nl  in  the  form  of  lines  or  otherwise 
must  not  be  inllictid  on  the  population  b\-  nasou  of 
iudivuhiiil  (uls  for  which  it  innnnl  hr  }ulil  colU  ctivthi 
rt  .s})i/tisililf." 

I'mf.  ssi.i-  M(  un  r.  in  an  aiMicle  entithd  "The  ,Tu(lj:j- 
inerit  on  I-ou\ain,"'  \sliieli  apjxared  in  J)i  iitsihldnil  und 
drr  Will!,  til 'J  1 '» I  ',  has,  like  man\'  otlitr  (Jirman  ^var 
^VI•|t'  I-,.  \(  ukaiiiji.  <  te..  dra\sii  atti  iitidu  I"  the  ik  \sspapt  r 
accounts  ol'  at  r' i(  i(  I.  ■.  eoinmilted  I)\  Hi  I'ji.uis  du  (ierman 
soI(ii,  rs,  \\Iiieh  nia\'  possil.|\-  he  |iarti:ili\  true.  l)ut  jiave 
hi  II  b' en  paitialK'  disj>rM\(il.  'j'h.  rumiiur  tliat  jrauc- 
tiiinis  ji:td  jiut  <iiit  the  (\(s  <,|'  wi.iinihd  (i.rman  soldiers 
ha-,  after  a  careful  in\  est  i^-at  i^n  in  which  the  (ierman 
new  ,[,;i[,(  )■  /'(,/;i //;7.s  took  p.iit,  pro\.,j  tc  he  unfoinid(d. 


Savagery  Bktwkkn  Civiltzf.d  Nations     27U 

But  the  title  alone  of  Meurer's  article,  "  Tlic  JikI^/uk nt 
on  Louvain,"  shows  that  the  (irrrnan  eonmiaruhrs  diitctc  d 
that  certain  atrocities  should  he  couimit t( d  on  ei\ilian 
Belgians,  atrocities  of  which  the  author  approxc  s  :  llic 
shootiiif^  not  only  of  those  wh<»  had  lircd  on  the  (iriiuans, 
but  of  numerous  women  and  children  as  will;  and  the 
deliberate  settiui,'  lire  to  the  town  in  the  com-^e  of  which 
lOTl-  dwelling-houses  were  hurnl  down  as  a  pmiisln/u  iil 
is  an  atrocious  act  of  barhaiism  wliieh  is  not  in  accordance 
with  the  rides  of  war  in  I'e^ard  to  icprisaK. 

The  Ilaj^uie  Conference  of  IS'.H)  adopted  certain  rules 
ajxainst  the  j)art  icipat  ion  of  civilians  in  war,  amonirst  them 
a  clause  fornndated  by  ^birtcns  in  which  it  was  decreed 
that  "in  unforeseen  cases  tlu;  population  and  the  com- 
batants shall  remain  under  the  protection  and  saf-  umard  of 
the  laws  of  nations  as  established  by  the  us<i<^t\  hi  (ijn nilioii 
bftzvtrn  civilizid  nut  ions,  the  dicldtcs  (if  htniKinilif,  and  Ihr 
frinciplcs  of  cfJiics  in  (j^cncral.'^ 

That  this  clause  was  transgressed  by  (ierman  soldiers, 
actxially  by  the  order  of  their  commanders.  l)oth  at  Louvain 
and  at  many  other  places,  has  been  ami)ly  dcmonstrate<l. 
When  cruel  rei^'isals  are  achnitted  from  (German  (piarters 
they  arc  excused  on  the  plea  of  the  necessity  of  prottdinL: 
the  German  troops.  The  burninrr  of  Louvain  was  tlnis  an 
aj)propriate  punitive  measure  I 

The  non-condiatants  who  have  suffered  most  t(rril)ly  in 
the  war  are  the  Bel^fians,  althouoh  they  thought  that  they 
were  safetruarded  by  their  neutrality  (,Muiranteed  l)y  the 
Great  Powers.  Germany  having  vit^lated  this  neutrality 
and  Bel<j[ium  havini:^  sought  by  the  force  of  arms  to  defend 
it,  the  country  has  been  crushed,  towns  have  been  bom- 
barded, commerce  and  industry  ha\"e  ceased.  sup]ilies  and 
cattle  have  been  taken  away,  the  ero])s  ha\-r  I)e(ii  de^-t  r<  'y(  d, 
enormous  war  contributions  have  been  levied,  and  a  i^reat 
part  of  the  utterly  destitute  poj)ulation  have  in  t  n  t'oreed 
by  want  to  ilce  to  Holland  the  Cnnrritr  Bilj.r  ci^mputes 
the  number  at  al)out  a  million,  ineludinif  L'o.'U'O  iM-plianed 


280        Before,  Dlring,  and  After  1914 

children.  This  enormous  number  of  people  consists  mainly 
of  old  men,  womtn,  and  children.  Almost  daily,  at  the 
time  of  the  invasion,  one  heard  of  women  Avho  had  j;one 
mad  or  eommitti-d  suicide.  .Most  had  lost  tlu  ir  husl)ands, 
many  thtir  ehildrtn.  Tlu'  future-  is  to  tlu-  majority  utterly 
^vithout  hopr.  Kvcrythin<;  has  eruiul)U-d  ;  must  of  tluni 
neither  dan-  nor  can  return  to  tluir  country,  ^vlu•^l■  their 
homes  jia\e  hee-n  laid  waste  or  have  disaj)j)eari-d  altojjether. 
Distress  has  also  overtaken  those  who  have  n-maiiu-d  at 
home  we  are  witnessing,'  the  starvation  <»f  a  nation. 
S<  Idom  has  history  had  to  reeortl  such  limithss  suffering 
f>f  a  whole  pcoj)le  ;  for  a  parallel  we  nuist  ^'o  hac-k  to  the 
tinus  when  Carthage  and  Jerusalem  wire  destroyid.  The 
^'aunt  spectre  of  want  han<,'s  ovir  13cl<,uum,  and  it  is  as 
if  an  overwhelmin;,'  natural  eatastr(>j)he,  an  all-en^ullinf; 
eartlujuake  or  a  ;:iL'antic  tidal  wave,  had  \isited  the 
country  not  a  frit  iidly  ]'(i\v<r  which  had  ^/uaranteed 
its  neutrality.  Some  help  is  heiiit,'  ;:iveu  to  the  unhappy 
lieJL'ians  throULfh  the  collections  of  compassjouatt-  fellow- 
ercaturis  in  othi  r  coimtrie^,  hut  tin  ir  sufferiiiLis  are  noiu- 
tlie  l(  ss  terrihie  and  in  muulxrltss  cas<  s  impossiliK-  to 
relieve. 

Tli<-  whole  unhajipy  country  is  utterly  paralysi d  and  the 
inhahitants  uho  are  left  are  hadini:  a  pitiahle  existence. 
In  t  he  middle  of  Dec*  ml  xr  t  he  (iernian  newspaper  I'lirxidrts 
f,'a\i-  an  account  of  tlu-  appalliiiLT  ((-ononue  situation  in 
lJ<I;,'iuin.  written  l»y  a  p(  rson  familiar  with  the  state  of 
things  there.  .\ny  sort  of  ri(-o\t  ry  Irom  this  j)liL,'ht  was 
not  to  he  thon^'lit  of.  (oiiiniunieat  ions  had  praeti(-allv 
(-eas(  (i  ;  raw  materials  lor  the  industries  w  i  ic  alto^ttlur 
lackiiiL'  :  tin  l'I-'ss  and  iiKtal  industii.s  \\er<  (had.  tlie 
(piarries  could  not  work,  tin  huildinu'  liadi-  was  at  a 
standstill.  .XKout  '.«)  p(  r  c«iit.  of  tli<  p<rst,ns  otherwise 
en!_'ai:ed  in  indust  r\  w  (  re  out  oj W  <  irk.  and  (  \ist  t d  ohIn'  \\  it  h 
t  he  ;iid  of  coiiiniiin.il  su|ijiort  ;  th-  eoff' i-s  of  t  lie  t  rade  unions 
w  (  r'  eiMpl\.  I-",\  I  n  p<  [si.ns  i,\'  tin  ei\il  s(  r\i(-(  class  w  <  re 
in  \\ant,  and  iiio^t  of  tlani  iieiivid  no  salarw  ()\(r 
.'>(), Odd    per-oi|s    Ml    HlUss.  Is    w  (  IC    eonij.illid    d:ill\-    to    f'teh 


Savagery  Between  Civilized  Nations    281 

their  souji  at  the  public  kitchens,  wlicre  represent  at  ivcs  of 
all  classes  foregathered. 

In  April  191 5  the  following  telcgiani  (»n  the  situation  in 
Belgium  was  made  public  :  ''  The  War  Aid  (Onmiittcc 
formed  by  the  liorkcfcllcr  Trust  to  in(iuire  into  the  condition 
of  the  Hi'lgian  j)oi)uIati(»n  in  tlu;  invaded  territory  has  now 
published  its  report,  which  constitutes  a  ciusjiiug  indict- 
ment of  German  rule  in  Belgiuiu.  In  the  sruallest  villag<s, 
as  well  as  in  the  large  towns  laid  waste  by  lire,  tJic  (urnum 
army  has  looted  <ill  houses  which  remained  standing,  and  all 
objects  which  could  not  be  removed  had  been  deliberately 
given  over  to  the  llamcs.  In  the  half-burnt  villages  the 
mdiappy  families  linger  on  in  tlu;  most  pitiable  and  in- 
sanitary state,"' 

On  ]May  .'3  the  following  telegraphic  message  was  dis- 
patched from  Belgium  :  "  (iermans  continue  their  imthodi- 
cal  sack  of  Belgium.'" 

The  newspaper  Vadcrland  j)ublishes  a  telegram  from  Aix- 
la-Chapelle  of  the  following  tenor  :  '"  During  the  last  few- 
days  trains  loaded  with  all  kinds  of  articles  froui  Belgium 
have  passed  through  Aix-la-Chapellc.  Your  eorresj)on(lent 
counted  over  ten  trains  laden  with  beet,  tools,  furniture, 
and  carts,  all  of  which  will  jirobably  be  sold  in  Germany." 

An  imj)ortant  dossier  of  the  German  atrocities  in  Belgium 
has  been  ])ublished  in  the  Revue  des  deux  Motules  of 
January  1915  ;  it  is  contained  in  a  contribution  by  P. 
Nothomb,  a  prominent  meni))cr  of  the  Belgian  Parliament, 
entitled  "  La  Belgiquc  Martyre." 

In  France  the  Germans  acted  with  most  appalling 
brutality  and  cruelty  in  the  dejx'irtmcnts  occn])icd  at  the 
beginning  of  the  war.  This  is  evidenced  by  the  Jiappurt 
issued  on  December  17,  lOl-l,  by  the  Commission  ap))()inted 
by  the  Government  to  investigate  the  enemy's  violation  of 
international    law,*     This    Conunission    was    coinposed    of 

*  liapport  jxir  la  Connnissiou  iiistitiiec  en  iiw  dc  v install  r  hs  dctcs 
comniis  par  I'cnticmi  en  violation  da  dmit  dts  -^cuh  :  Juurnal  (ij]icitl, 
Janmuv.  8.  1915. 


282        Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

M.  Payille,  Prtsid.  nt  <.f  the  Ili.uli  Court.  M.  Mollard, 
ainl)assacl(»r,  M.  Marinijcr,  C'on^cillcr  cl"I^tat,  aiul  M.  I'aillot, 
CoiiiK'illor  of  Justice  Tlu  y  wciit  to  work  with  the  most 
scrupulous  thorou;,'hni  ss  and  arci  ptrd  no  accounts  which 
had  not  hern  amply  j)rovrd,  so  that  tiny  can  vouch  that 
the  report  c(»ntains  nothing'  l>ut  facts  which  iiavi-  heen 
fulli/  suhshinlidttd  and  which  can  thcrt  forr  i»c  tak(  n  as  in- 
cont(  stahle  I  \id(  lice  of  the  crimes  conunitted.  State- 
mints  whose  autlu  utility  has  not  Ixt  ii  demonstrated 
1)(  youd  all  doubt  ha\"e  ))een  admitted.  I%\(ry  case  dealt 
with  is  accoiMpanii  (1  hy  the  most  absolute  |)roofs  based 
not  oidy  on  jxrsoual  observations  on  the  i)art  of  the 
m<nil)ers  of  the  ("ommission,  but  also  on  photographic 
evidence  and  mnu<rous  sworn  statiiiK  iits. 

The  atroeitiis  st  t  forth  in  the  re|)oi"t  surpass  in  ext(  nt 
and  liorror  an\fhin^'  that  the  imaeiuation  can  conceive. 
l"!ntii-e  \-illaLres  haNc  Ixcn  (l<stroV((l  b\-  eun  and  rillc  tire, 
M'linlf  /oti //.v  tnt'  iiiin])l<  tibj  (lisirliil  and  nothiuLT  but  ruins 
remain.  In  some  placis,  \\ii(  re  (he  ineendiari(  s  df  the 
invadi  r  have  l)e(  u  at  work,  one  niiulit  think  that  one  liad 
been  traiisplantf  d  to  the  ruins  of  si.uie  ancitiit  town 
destroyed  b\'  a  L,u"<  at  cataelysni  of  nat>n-e.  The  n  port 
^-•oes  on  to  show  that  m  \'er  has  .a  war  between  ei\ili/.t(l 
nations  been  mark< d  b\-  such  sa\aL,'e  feroeitv  as  that  now 
wa;,'<-d  in  Western  l''.urop<-  i)y  a  mii'ciless  eiu my.  I''aets 
prove  indisput  abl\'  that  the  (ierman  army  is  animated  by 
an  al)subit  e  and  en t  ire  ( 'inti  rnjil  for  hiini/in  lifr.  The  o Dicer, 
no  1(  ss  than  the  soldier,  kills  the  wounded  and  murders 
without  ni'  re\-  tji-'  d>  fenceless  inhabitants  of  occupied 
1 1  rritoii'  s,  spariuL'  n-  itli'  r  woiu'-n,  old  men.  nor  children. 
The  onie(  r>  tlieuisi  I\es  taki  jtarf  in  these  inassaeri  s.  'I'he 
cont  ehf  ioii  of  t  111  (e  iiiiaus  1  hat  \]\i-  (  1:  il  jinjDih'ti")!  h(  '^,ni  thr 
(iHiiil:  ini  Ihrni  i>  a  li<-.  Tho^i-  who  ha\-e  spi,  ad  abroad 
til'  s,-  r'ports  lia\i  bei  n  tiuabl--  to  im\c  tli>ui  any  semblance 
(>f  \<Taeit\-.  Th'-  uhUiImi.  o)'  the  (  i  .|  n  1 1 1  i  ^s  jou  iu  inaUV 
ea  'S  lia\>'  colli  etid  e\|i|iliei  to  show  that  the  (irrnmn.s 
tlu  I/I.  (  I;  I  \  to  inaki-  bilii\(  tliit  t  In  \  had  In  '  ii  attacked, 
h.'i\i-   ili  ujmrcid  rifli-;   from   tl,''   \ieimt\-   of  dw.  Minus.      In 


Savagery  Between  Civilized  Nations    283 

almost  every  town  uiul  village  eitizens  linve  hern  dra^fgrd 
away  from  tlieir  homes  and  thrown  into  prison.  Many 
have  (lied  or  been  killed  on  the  way.  The  enemy,  savs 
the  report  of  the  Commission,  has  practised  incendiarism 
partly  in  order  to  cow  the  j)opulation  and  partly  in  pur- 
suance of  a  system  of  deliberate  deslruetion.  'i'he  in- 
ccndiary  fiirij  of  the  Germans  lias  been  vented  first  and  fore- 
most on  churches  and  historical  monuiuents.  Thousands 
of  houses  have  b(>en  l)urnt  to  the  Ljround.  but  the  members 
of  the  Conunission  hav(^  concerned  themscKcs  only  witli 
fires  started  with  solely  crinn'nal  intent,  and  lia\c  taken  no 
notice  of  those  caused  by  shell  lire  in  the  course  of  the 
fightiniT.  On  the  subject  of  thefts,  it  has  b< en  d( mon- 
strated  that  tlu>  Germans,  in  the  presence  c)f  tli(ir  olllcers 
and  often  in  collusion  with  them,  have  carried  f»n  nuilidili- 
cnlbj  orf^dnizcd  lool'nv^.  This  abominable  ])ractiee  of  the 
Germans  is  jiarticularly  noticeable  at  T.uiu'ville  and  thr(»ws 
a  stranrre  liijht  on  the  mentality  of  the  usurj)ers.  Afttr 
having  indiscriminately  looted  and  gutted  seventy  houses, 
they  jirocccdcd  to  massacre  jieaceful  inhabitants.  The 
German  authorities  ]M)sted  up  a  ]iroclamation  bringing  the 
most  ridiculous  charges  in  order  to  justify  the  levying, 
under  threats  of  the  death  penalty,  of  a  contribution  of 
050,000  francs. 

The  rcjiort  concludes  by  saying  that  these  acts  are  as 
many  violations  of  the  rights  of  man.  The  murder  of 
Xi'innidi'd  and  pri>^oncrs  is  forbidden  by  international  con- 
ventions, as  arc  attacks  on  the  Red  Cross  staff,  doctors, 
and  stretcher-bearers,  of  which  luimerous  instances  are 
cited. 

Old  men  of  seventy  and  eighty  and  over  have  been  shot. 

Criminal  assardls  on  young  girls,  nun'^,  and  ladii^s  whose 
husbands  were  fighting  have  been  extraordinarily  numerous 
and  many  cases  have  been  ju-oved  to  the  hilt,  l-'requently 
several,  as  many  as  nine,  soldiers  ha\"e  eoniinitted  rape  on 
one  and  the  same  woman,  often  under  tlie  inu//.l(^  of  the 
revolver. 

This    ghastly    re]-)ort,    whieli    tills    sixteen    three-column 


284        Befokk,  Duuing,  and  Affer  1014- 

pages  of  folio  Nizr.  in  wiiioh  tvtry  case  cited  is  accom- 
panied by  a  stalcnicnt  <if  the  locality,  date,  name,  etc., 
can  he  nad  l>y  n<»  one  without  tlu-  dnpcst  liorror,  and 
makes  imv  sifk  iii  -^<>ul  and  l)«»dy.  This  at  hast  is  the 
imprt.ssi<*n  it  made  mi  nir.  and  1  e<>uKl  not  i\  ad  it  without 
pau^ini,'  now  and  lh<  n,  ju^t  as  when  I  nad  tlie  iiistory  of 
the  Inqvii>ition  and  its  terrors. 

On  the  suhjcct  of  the  d(stru<-tion  of  the  town  of  S<  nlis, 
on  Siptcmhcr  "J,  aKo  rthrrc-d  to  in  tlu-  report.  Mi-.  Ciustaf 
IIellstr('im  lias  (,Mvin  the  Dn^icns  Xi/lutcr  an  account  (tf  his 
ixr^onal  invest  ii^^at  ion.  There  wviv  no  l-'rench  or  British 
soldiers  in  the  town,  only  a  few  Zouaves,  and  there  was  no 
fit,'htini,'.  The  town  was  homharded  for  three  hoiu's  and 
shells  were  dropjx-d  on  the  cathedral,  after  the  (iernums 
had  heard  rille  lirini,'  from  the  Zouaves.  The  mayor  had 
drawn  up  a  proclamation,  which  was  found  at  his  domicile, 
hut  which  he  had  no  time  to  post  in  a  public  place.  He 
was  nevertheless  draL'j,'<d  away  as  a  hosta;je  toLTether  \vith 
several  otlu  rs,  all  of  whom  were  shot  :  even  l)oys  were 
.shot  down.  'J'lie  (i(  rman  soldiers  In  uaii  li\'  lo'ituiL'  an 
hotel  and  stealinu'  I'ood  and  wine,  thin  th<  y  ^'ot  drunk 
and  he^an  to  dance  ;  tlu  y  went  from  cabaret  to  cabart  t  and 
became  more  and  more  intoxicated,  after  which  they  set 
fire  to  the  town  with  hand  grenades  and  petrol.  Accordin<,' 
to  the  C'onuuissiou  of  Invest i;,'at ion,  li\'e  hundred  houses 
Were  reduced  to  asjies.  AlthouLrh  it  was  the  Zouavt  s  who 
iiad  lired  the  shots  heard  by  the  (Jermans,  the  latter  j)cr- 
si>t<(l  in  th(  ir  pretext  that  they  came  from  civilians,  wiiich 
was  not  t  he  ea'-e. 

Whilst  th<-  (itrm;ins  in  the  first  month  of  the  war 
pursued  th.ji  f  iiuiii  ph.'il  pro</ress  tlironu.'h  l{t  lu'inm  aiul 
I'raiice  with  "<^'>i»\  r<siilfs."  fjic  jxoj.Ie  at  home  W(  re 
b<  ^id.-  theiiisi|\is  \sith  e\n!t;uit  jo\-  ;  ll;iL's  ;iii(l  bimtin^ 
w '  re  nm\er^;il.  and  e\(  i\  w  h'  l"'-  the  inopli  s.-mtT  with 
patiiotie  |"ir\oiu-  ■'  1  )'  iif -ehlaiid.  1  )>  ut  .ehl;ind  ulifr  All's 
in  <\'i-  \\'\\."  Til'-  ehiireji.  s  ii  ■.inid'd  with  thi-  sw<llin^J 
t .  .ii.  s  ( .t  "■  Nun  (hiiikrt  ;illi  (  ImM  ,  "  and  the  ( li  rni.in  pi  <  i[)le 
\\<  r<-  (  xaltid  as   the  W'athv  d.  -ci  ndaiits  of  (',<>'  t  h<  ,    Ixaiit, 


Savagery  Between  Civilized  Nations    285 

and  Bc'tt  lit)\rii.  Mcjinwliilc  lliousaiids  ol'  cix  iliaii  H(  l;^'iaiis 
and  Frcnclinicn  wcii-  llccin^'  from  lluir  burnin;^'  hoiiics, 
hundreds  of  tlu-ni  wounded  or ///  <u7;Tm/.v,  wliilst  liwndrcds 
again  lay  nnu'dercd  and  many  hundred  ra|)ed  women  were 
suffering  agonies  of  (h'sj)air  and  humiliation  brought 
upon  them  by  these  worthy  sons  ol"  (ioethc,  Kant,  and 
Beethoven. 

It  is  not  diflieult  to  inukrstand  that  the  l-'reneh,  who  for 
the  hist  (k'eades  have  felt  no  rancour  against  the  (i(  rmans 
and  whose  desire  for  revenge  had  died  away.  ha\c  by  the 
German  exjiloits  in  this  war  been  tilled  with  lUKxt  inguish- 
able  hatred,  and  are  resohcd.  (Government  and  j)eoi)h' 
alike,  to  light  to  the  last  man  and  not  to  make  jxaee  until 
the  eiu'my  is  beati-n  ;  nor  can  one  wonder  that  the  women 
of  France  declined  to  join  in  the  Women's  Peace  Congress 
at  The  Hague  at  the  end  of  Aj)ril  l'.)l.').  "  So  long  as  tin; 
soil  of  France  is  not  freed  from  the  enemy,  her  women 
cannot  think  of  peace  " — that  was  their  message  to  the 
Congress. 

The  FiUipcror  William's  message  to  his  army  on  the  out- 
break of  war,  to  the  effect  that  he  placed  his  trust  in  the 
"  unconquerable  martial  spirit  which  from  da\s  of  old  has 
filled  oiu'  enemies  with  /<Yrr  and  terror,''  and  (ieneral  llart- 
mann's  doctrine  that  "  the  enemy  States  must  not  be  spared 
the  distress  (uid  horrors  of  rear,''  have  had  had  an  ai)palling 
sequel.  This  may  well  rt'iuind  us  of  the  (nrmanic  bar- 
barians of  anti(piity,  when  they  l)urNt  into  the  Boman 
Empire  and  ra\-aged  (iaul,  (ireece,  and  the  Ivist,  sacking 
towns  and  putting  the  population  to  the  sword,  or  of  the 
Huns,  whose  savage  lust  of  destruction  spread  terror  over 
Europe  {cf.  p.  28). 

The  Emperor  William  threatened  China,  some  twenty 
years  ago  with  (Germany's  *'  )>i(iili(!  fist,"  and  his  orch  r--  to 
the  China  tro()j)s  of  Field-Marshal  ^VaId^r^ee  ^V(  it  :  "  (io 
ye  forth  as  Huns  !  "  The  (Germans  have  shown  that  they 
can  obey  :  they  have  not  forgotten  the  command,  ami 
even  in  this  Euroj)ean  World  War  they  have  obeyed  it  with 
Prussian  thorouohness. 


'2S()        Before,  Uuuing,  and  After  1914- 

^VI^c•n  (icutral  IIiiKlrnbur;_j  had  drli  atcd  the-  Russians  in 
East  Prussia,  the  Gtrnums  j)in(.tratt'd  into  Poland  and 
Lithuania,  and  althoU[j;li  Ihisc-  c-(tuntiits  arc  not  inhahittd 
by  Russians,  tiny  liavc  Ix  t  n  trratiil  in  tlu'  most  aj)i)anin<» 
nianntr  \)y  the-  victorious  (ii  rnians.  Acfonlini,'  to  data 
puhHslicd  by  the  "  Lithuanian  Information  liurcau  "'  in 
l*aris,*  sonic  lilty  communes,  tlic  names  of  which  arc  jjivcn, 
Wire  badly  ra\a<,'cd  l^y  tlic  Cicrman  invasion.  The  h»otin«^ 
has  been  systematic  ;  the  soUlicrs  titok  food,  cattle,  and 
horses  without  givinj,'  the  receipts  j)rescribed  ftjr  such 
re(juisitions,  and  when  the  inhabitants  in  sc)mc  plai-cs 
asked  for  these  vouchers,  they  reciived  pieces  of  papir  on 
which  was  written  :  "  \\'ho(\tr  j)roduces  this  shall  be 
han^'(-d  or  shall  receive  100  strokes  of  the  cat.""  In  all 
the  localitiis  mentioned  the  (iermans  have  destroyi'd  or 
re([uivitioned  projx  I'ty  npresintinnr  tens  of  millions,  and 
ha\'e  taken  a  toll  of  thousands  of  li\  i  s. 

A  report  was  sent  to  Pope  Renrdiet  (daiiuaiy 'JS.  HM.**) 
appealing,'  for  his  iuter\ cnt  ion  wit  h  t  lie  (iernian  (ioNcrnmriit 
and  his  protest  a;,'ainst  the  way  in  which  the  (icrmans 
treated  pri<-^ts  and  churehis  in  Lithuania.  In  this  n  purt 
it  is  stated  that  sc\(n  churches  in  the  districts  of  N'llna 
and  Seina  ha\'e  been  boinbaidi-d  and  that  three  of  thcin 
are  in  ruins,  si\-eral  hundred  persons  women,  children, 
and  old  men  who  took  refuse  within  ha\iii^  been  killed  or 
w<»un(led.  A  c<.uple  of  jiriests  who  ri  I'used  to  incite  t  he 
j)opulation  to  rebellion  aijainst  the  Russian  admiiuslration 
were  shot. 

The  (le\  astat  ion  in  the  Polish  theatre  of  war  has  been 
tleseribtd  by  the  I'ohsh  Countess  Le(loeho\sska  in  two 
addre^Ms  ^i\(  ri  at  Stockliohn  in  April  I'.M.").  in  the  courM- 
of  whi<'h  she  ;,'a\c  the  fojlowini:  details  :  About  I'dO  town-^ 
and  '.H)()0  \illa^eN  lia\<  b.  .  n  affiet.d  by  tin'  war.  and  .".e'OO 
lilhli;(S  fur,  I  In  I  II  li\illi(l  In  I'hr  '^iniiuil  (iliM,lul<  I//.  The 
ehurehes  are  m  liniis.  tin  i;ianari(  s  are  (iiip!\,  and  au'ii 
cult  u re  is  eoinplet  <  ly  jtaral ys( d  fop  \s  ant  of  eat  t  le  and  s(  i d. 

•    (   f.    J'l'/     Ltthiiniiii  .     Iinlli'iiii     tniii-.iiil    ilil    l/uiiiin    d'  I  hf"i  iiiiilr'h:> 
ilr  Lilfnnrii'  .  le.ir-    I'.M.'). 


Savagery  Between  Civilized  Nations    '287 

Many  towns,  such  us  Lodz  with  its  t.">(),()()()  inhuhitunts, 
twice  conquered,  arc  complctvbj  ruined.  The  laetories  ;ire 
closed,  re(hieiii<,'  some  •l.()(),()()()  xcor/inwn  In  dcslilnl'um. 
ThoHSduds  of  inli(djil(ints  arc  ziyindcrlnn  dhonl  in  the  forrsls 
homeh'ss,  and  mothers  have  no  food  to  ^rive  th(  ir  st;ir\iii;^' 
children.  Terrible  epidemics  I'amiin',  spotttd  typhus, 
dysentery,  etc.  have  broken  out,  espeei;iily  aniori^'  the 
children,  who  have  suffered  IVoiu  a  total  lack  of  ruilk, 
llinidreds,  luiy,  thousands  are  stretehiu^f  out  iiuplorin<^ 
hands  for  a  crust  of  l)read,  but  there  is  none  to  /^'ive. 
MotluM's  turn  their  faces  from  their  children  to  be  sparid 
the  sijfht  of  their  wan  laces,  |)inehed  by  famine.  The 
soldier,  who  has  i^'one  out  to  li^ht,  but  treasures  in  his 
innermost  heart  the  j)icture  of  the  home  he  left  behind 
him,  returns  to  tuid  the  corpses  of  wife  and  children,  starved 
to  death. 

A  race  who  have  suffered  cruelly  throu^di  the  war  arc 
the  Jews.  AVhat  has  made  the  war  ])articularly  terriljlc 
for  them  to  bear  is  the  devastation  which  has  swept  over 
those  coimtries  of  Eastern  Europe  where  they  lived  in  lar<,'c 
comnnmitics,  as  in  Russian  Poland  with  its  2.000. 000, 
and  Galicia  with  its  1,()0(),()0()  Jews.  We  know  now  that 
these  countries  are  nothin<r  but  an  inunense  cemetery,  a 
liufTc  waste  of  ruins,  where  (ill  industrial  life  has  ceased  and 
in  the  midst  of  which  the  remaining  inhabitants  arc 
threatened  with  comj)letc  annihilation,  whilst  millions 
have  had  to  llec  from  their  native  soil  and  have  neither 
home  nor  bread. 

The  Jews,  like  the  other  subjects  of  a  State,  are  required 
to  serve  in  the  army,  and  it  is  reckoned  that  about  a  million 
have  been  in  arms,  of  whom  some  200.000  have  been  killed 
or  seriously  wounded.  Scattered  as  tliey  are  o\"er  the 
covmtries  at  war,  these  co-religionists  and  kin->nun  hu\c 
everywhere  been  made  to  li<fht  aijainst  one  another. 

In  Palestine  a  Jewish  culture  which  has  sprunir  u]>  in 
recent  decades  is  now  threateni'd  witli  extinction  owiiii,'  to 
broken  communications  and  the  resultant  impo--^il)iIity  of 
makiuL;-  aiiric-nltui'e  in'oductive.      l-'or  tlie  .Tews,  thcrrfore, 


288 


Before,  During,  and  After  1911 


tlu-   war  is  a  catastrophr.    |)(rlia|>s  tlu-  ^Mratcst    that    lias 
IxfalKn  tluni  in  mir  era  siiuc  the  dcstriu-tion  of  J(  rusaUin. 

ProfcNsor  H(  iss.  «•!"  Lausainu-.  after  invest ijj^atiiit;  the 
Austridti  (itrocilits  in  Strhi<i,  has  i'urnislud  tlu-  lollowinL,' 
details.  At  Sjahatz  the  investi^'at ion  only  covers  this 
district  KR)()  ci\  ilians,  mainly  of  the  peasant  class  and 
fiinales  of  aj,'es  varying'  between  two  and  ninet\-two,  have 
1)(  III  niassac-ncl.  Most  of  them  wire  taken  as  hostai^es, 
hut  as  it  was  imj)ossil)U-  to  ^t  them  sent  tfi  Austria  at 
once,  they  W(  re  put  to  death.  At  L(  tchnit/.a  the  Austrians 
conijx  Ihil  101)  citizens  of  the  civil  |»opulation  hetwein  the 
a^'(  s  of  ei>,dit  and  ninity.  \\\u>  had  hceii  taken  as  hostai,ns, 
to  dij,'  trtiK'hes.  Tlu  y  were  ther(iipon  ranL.'<d  up  ahm*,'- 
side  these  trt  nehes  and  shot,  t  heir  hodies  falliiii,'  into  the  pit 
behind  them.  Many  of  them,  however,  wire  not  killed 
outri;.'ht.  and  a  number,  in  I'act,  wi  re  not  e\en  touched,  but 
ncvertheli  ss  the  t  n  iiclu  s  wt  ic  tilled  in  ov(  r  dead  and  livinj;. 
Prof<  sNor  Iteiss  adds  that  in  some  of  the  smaller  towns 
\\hich  hi-  has  \  isjted  1  1  IS  ei\  iliaiis  ha\"c  b(  (  ii  killed. 

In  the  Austrian  Pre  ss  these  atrocities  are  i  \cused  on  the 
j)lra  that  the  Serbian  ci\ilian  population  attacked  the 
Aust  rian  t  mops  I 

•An  ollieial  summary  <»f  the  liiissiati  (iliiniliis  in  l--ast 
Prussia  has  Ix  e  n  jxiblished  by  the  (ii  rmaii  (Government 
(.\j)ril  1  '.tl ." ),  all  data  j,Mven  Ik  inu  taken  from  ollieial  reports 
and  sNSdiTi  declarations.  IIcic  we  I'eael  the-  tojlowin^  :  '"  It 
is  now  a  faet  f.imiliar  to  all  that  the-  feuim  i-ly  tlourishini,' 
rei^'ion  of  I'".ast  Prussia  now  j)r(  s(  nts,  as  a  result  eit'  the'  bar- 
barous Russian  me  thoels  of  wail'are-,  a  |>ie-tui'e  ol  the-  most 
hojie  I' ss  d«s(,|ation,  that  entire  towns  ha\e'  been  burnt 
de.wn  .and  eh  sf  i,  ,\ ,  <|.  anel  that  the  pe  aen  till  inhabitants 
lia\e-  hael  t<'  t!y  lr<im  the-  i-i  ^'une  e.f  saek  aiiel  miuele  r  and 
le  a\e-  ;ill  t  h;it  they  peiss,ss.el  behiliel.  ()llie-|;ii  details  rieiW 
to  h.iiiel  she.w  that  in  the-  eotiisr  t.f  the-  t\\e»  Hussian  in- 
\.'isioiis  e.f  l-',ast  I'russia  tliousaiiels  e-t  me  ii,  wnmen,  and 
ehilelreii  \sere-  dra;.'i.'' <l  a\\a\.  whiUt  t  lii  lUsainis  nt'  eithers 
^\  e  It  murele  re  el  aiiel  'JO, ()(»()  bnilelin^s  were-  desti-nye-d  or 
burnt  ;    ill  the-  seee)ii(l  invasiitu  .so.ooo  dwe  lliiiL'  h< 'Us(  s  we  re 


Savagery  Between  Civilized  Nations    2Sl> 

looted  and  destroyed.  Tlic  last  Russian  raid  on  M* m*  1 
also  proved  to  he  a  savafje  lootinj^  expedition  piinetuuted 
by  every  coneeivable  horror.  The  ecrtilicd  statements 
annexed  to  the  report  hear  ghastly  witness  to  th(  eni<  Itic  s 
and  aets  of  savajjery  inllieted  on  the  pojjulation. 

"In  every  eoneeivahle  way  the  Russian  fro()j)s  have 
stolen,  plundered,  sacked,  and  wantonly  destroNcd  the 
moval)les  of  rieli  and  poor.  Cattle  and  supphes  liave  he*  ii 
taken  away  without  jiaynient  and  without  Iea\in^  re- 
(piisition  receipts.  Men  and  woiu(  ii  W(  re  forced  t<t  hand 
over  their  last  pfenni<^s  to  the  rapacious  soldiery.  Houses 
were  ransacked  from  top  to  bottom  and  e\(rythin^  that 
ap]H'al(>d  to  the  ^reed  of  the  rank  and  lile  was  carried  away. 
To  crown  their  infamy,  they  deliixrately  and  wantonly 
burnt  and  destroyed  homesteads,  farm  buildiufjs,  and 
supplies. 

"  The  population,  amonj^st  them  women  and  children, 
were  maltreated  under  all  sorts  of  pretexts  and  without 
rhyme  or  reason,  althoufrh  they  did  all  in  their  ]K)W(  r  to 
please  the  Russian  soldiers  as  regards  food  and  lodijinrr. 
These  eruclties  include  many  aets  of  deliberate  torture  ; 
thus  in  one  ease  all  the  male  inhabitants  of  a  whole  villa<fe, 
ineludinc:  the  judfre,  were  flofrfred  and  threatened  with 
death.  A  very  eonmion  occm-rence  was  the  nnnxler  of 
peaeeal)le  citizens  without  the  slinrhtcst  cause,  often  with 
rcfmed  torture  and  before  the  eyes  of  tlieir  family.  Rape 
of  women  was  frequent.  In  many  eases  the  unliaj)py 
victims  were  assaulted  by  several  soldiers  in  succession  and 
many  were  infected  with  venereal  diseases.  Women  in  an 
advanced  stage  of  pregnancy  fell  victims  to  these  lascivious 
beasts  in  human  form,  and  even  old  women  of  over  seventy 
were  not  sjiared.  A  little  girl  of  eight  was  raped  by  iico 
Russian  soldiers  in  succession.  OlVicers  were  also  to  be 
fovmd  amongst  the  guilty." 

Germany  has  now  surprised  her  enemies  witli  giant 
mortars  of  42  centimetres,  with  which  the  most  appalling 
execution   has  been  done  and   by  the   aid   of  wluVh   the 

T 


290        Before,  During,  and  After  1914- 

strongest  fortrcssrs  have  been  taken  consummate  in- 
fernal maehines  ^vhieh  Fran  Rertha  Krupp  lias  con- 
tributed to  (iernian  warfare,  a  token,  l)y  tlu-  way,  of 
woman's  share  in  nujclern  culture.  These  j^uuis  have 
been  playfully  called  '' Dieke  Ikrlha  "  ("Fat  Bertha") 
after  lu  r.* 

Resides  many  hi^^dily  perfected  tvfMs  of  pun,  howitzer, 
etc.,  hittin;,'  tluir  tartlet  with  incrrdil)K-  |)rfcisi()n  at  an 
enormous  ran^e  determined  by  seitntilie  calculations,  and 
in  addition  to  improved  shells  and  shrapnel,  this  war  has  also 
witnessed  the  int rochict ion  of  machine  <:uns  of  the  very 
hi;,di(  st  ellici*  ncy.  ca{)abK-  of  (Kaliiii:  d<ath  wholesale.  A 
German  ollicer  wrote  in  a  war  letter  from  B(  lL,'ium.  after  his 
m<  II  had  bet  ii  decimated  by  liritish  machine  j^nin  lire: 
"These  machine-<:uns  are  the  invention  of  the  devil 
himself  I  " 

This  war  has  been  very  fertile  in  new  nut  hods  of  li^^htinp 
and  en<,Mnes  of  destruction  hitherto  \mdr(  amt  of.  To 
aerial  bombardmi  nt  has  Incn  a<ld«(l  tJM  use  of  haiid- 
prenadf  s  and  mines,  and  now  we  have  the  '"  s|.rayinLr  with 
corrosi\j'  licjuids."'  'i'liis  diabolical  in\enti<>n  is  (ierman. 
and  was  hrst  used  in  !•'(  bruary  1  •.>!."»  in  flic  forest  of  Malan- 
eourt  b(tw(en  the  Ardennes  and  the  ^b■use.  where  the 
(jcrmans  sprayi d  the  l-'rcnch  in  tluir  tr(iu'lus  ^sith  a 
eorrosi\'c  li(]nid  which  bui-nt  tluni  badly  and  conip(  lied 
tlu  III  to  ( Aaeiiate  tlu  ir  position. 

Anotlur  Ik  llisli  device  adopted  by  the  (iermans  (in 
March  r.'l."))  was  the  .^prdi/lirj  t>f  tlir  cfKini/  :cillt  j)<lri)ltinn 
iujnited  |i\-  haiul  bombs  aiul  biirniii!.,'  torches.      Tlie  soldiers' 

•  l',<jii;i!l\  l.tr;.'!-.  if  iii.t  l.ifL'' r,  fun^  win-  ii'-<  il  in  1  1.'.'$  iiiid  si  alt  rl 
tli<-  f;itc  ..f  (  ..ii-t:iiitni.|i!.-  .-il  lli'-  haii.ls  ef  M.  .Iiainm.  d  II.  H.  liad 
III  nil  a..'"  <1  t'l  (  .ijiili  into  lli  ^  -•  i  \  n  <■  a  (  li  \  ■  i  ( i  );uii-li  m  Himi,':'ii;in  ) 
t'liii-f. iiMuliT  iiaiip  (i  t  I  liiiii,  \\  liM  1,.  (  ami  his  I\i  ii]ip.  At  t  li«  l)r(^Il.■ll)^■(' 
^\'.rk'^  .'it  .\(lri.i!ii  i|ilf  lie  "-I  t  til  \\i>rk  til  iiial^i-  runs  of  iiicrediliji-  ^\/c. 
'l'l\r  stone  ].r'.j.  I  lilr-  uf  til.-  lai."- 't  U(ii.'li''l  <".<'<>  lie  :  thf  tran'-]...rt 
iif  t  h'  s<-  inmet'  I  c'lii'-  r'  qnin  ij  t  lur '  \-  \\  .il'i  ■ii'-  fa'  I'  i;i  il  1 1  '^'i  t  hi  r  ami 
<ira\Mi  1>\  M  \l  \  I  '\i  n.  Th'  l;iiii  n  inM  in  ■!  In  lin  il  nii  ■!'  I  han  m  \  <  ii 
I  mi's  a  iha\  ,  .arui  I  rhan  s,  ,ii;'hl  1 1 1  pi  ■  \  <  nt  its  hnr^t  mj'  (.an  an  iih  nt 
\'.  !.;•  !i  '  \ .  lit  Ii  ill'.    Ii.!|i|i<  Ml  i|  J  ti\    I  -  HI  III;:  m  ml  aft'  I  I  \ '  I  \   ii'imii. 


Savagery  Betwkkn  Civilized  Nations     l'IU 

clothes  Avcro  saturated  hy  the  oil,  when  upon  tlnv  l)(  <  anu- 
wreathed  in  llaiucs  and  nscrnhlcd  livin;,'  torches;  v<l. 
they  went  on  fi|,'htini,'  until  their  rillcs  droj)|)< d  IVom  th.  ir 
hands. 

At  tlic  heginninjT  of  Ai)ril  the  (icrnians  introduced  at 
Ypres  the  use  of  bouibs  conldin'niii  (i.sphi/i itilinti  ^ti.sis,  the 
clVieieney  of  wliieh  was  loudly  pi'aist  <1  in  \\[i'\r  cnnununi'iiti's. 

Itritish  and  French  doctors  lia\-e  reported  on  these 
bombs  and  have  found  that  the  medium  u-(d  is  the  \  (  rv 
noxious  and  eorrosive  rlilorinc  <^(ts.  Those  w  ho  are  exposed 
to  its  effect  hrst  feel  a  burning'  pain  accoiiipani<d  by 
intolerable  irritation  in  throat  and  eyes;  these  s\iiiptoms 
are  sueeeeded  by  severe  attacks  of  suffocation  and  terrible 
])ain  in  the  chest,  aceom])anied  i)y  an  inci  ssant  cou^^di. 
Mdruj  fell,  never  to  rise  ai^ain  ;  others  reehd  about  in 
dreadful  aijony,  berran  to  choke,  and  luul  to  withdraw 
from  the  firing  line.  A  great  number  of  those  who  escaped 
lay  sick  for  many  days  and  died  in  spite  of  the  most  la\ish 
care. 

It  has  been  tlie  intention  of  the  Ciermans  to  briuL,' 
methods  of  this  kind  into  general  use,  and  they  ha\-e  h.id 
them  up  their  sleeve  for  a  considerable  tinic  In  fact, 
ihc  xi'holc  plant  luid  been  ori^tnu'-.rd  bcfnrdnind.  Il  has  been 
stated  by  a  prisoner  that  cylinders  containinLT  i^'.'is  had 
been  served  out  over  a  great  sfrcleli  of  front,  twiiity 
cylinders  to  every  fifty  metres.  A  sub-lieutenant  \\lio 
had  l)een  taken  jirisoiur  has  declared  that  he  consi(j(  rs  the 
asphyxiating  gases  a  useful  weajion  in  (ieniiany's  ^vvv'wc. 
That  the  organization  has  long  l)een  in  prip^rat  ii>n  is 
demonstrated  by  the  fact  that  the  (iennau  troops  .m 
April  *22  carried  an  outfit  to  protect  them  U-on\  asphyxia- 
tion. 

Finally,  the  Germans  have  attempted  t(^  pni^  »  II.,-  ::,  lis- 
for  their  enemies  in  South-west  AtViea.  The  Ibiti-h 
Colonial  Secretary  issued  on  Mv.y  .'>.  I'.n.'.  a  stat^ up  nt 
on  the  sul\jcet  giving  the  following  (h  ta, iK  :  On  th'  occupa- 
tion of  Swakopniund  by  tlie  Union  tr(Mij)s  it  \\as  di-^coxi  r^d 
that    six    wells    had    been    poisoned    with    sonic    t.rMH.icl 


292        Before,  During,  and  After  lOli 

substance.  In  some  cases  ba^s  contditiing  this  poison  ivere 
disccncred  in  tlw  xctll.  General  Botlia  sent  a  letter  to 
Colonel  Franeke  eonnnandinjj  the  (iernian  forc^es,  in  which 
he  point*  <1  out  that  such  action  was  contrary  to  Article  'J.'J 
of  The  Ilafjiie  Convention. 

Franeke  admitted  that  the  Germans  had  tried  the 
substance  in  question  and  had  tound  that  hy  its  use  any 
enemy  would  l)e  compelled  for  sf)me  time  ahead  to  procure 
water  from  elsewhere.  Franeke  added  that  in  order  not 
to  injure  the  health  of  the  enemy  he  had  <;iven  orders  that 
wdls  thus  treated  should  have  warnings  posted  beside 
them. 

IJotha  declared.  howe\-er,  that  no  such  warnin^js  were 
found.  Three  weeks  later,  moreover,  a  letter  was  inter- 
ce[)ted  from  a  Captain  Kriiijer,  of  the  German  Protectorate 
trooj)s,  to  an  achanccd  post  at  Pforte.  In  this  letter  it 
was  said  that  "'the  patrol  at  (iabib  has  reerived  instruc- 
tions Ifidrdnalih/  to  infi'ct  llif  Ida  Mine  -.cilli  virus.  Please, 
therefore,  approach  Swakop  and  Ida  Mine  with  LrnMtest 
caution  and  never  %vater  tlnre  a^ain." 

After  evacuatinj,'  .Aus,  \Varmbad.  and  other  j)laces.  the 
German  troops  sj/strrnaticdlh/  poisoned  all  xceJls  nJonc.  the 
railuny  lines  durint^  their  ret  rent. 

Article  L'.'J  of  The  Ila^nie  Convention  of  1S'.>T,  siirned 
bv  (iermanv.  provides:  "*  It  is  particularly  praliiJiiied  : 
(a)  To  use  poison  or  ])nisi>ited  :eeti])ons." 

Many  otlier  aj)pallinLi:  thinL,'s  have  lieen  rej")orted  from 
the  war.  Hayonet  ti^ditiuLT  is  deserilxd  as  bi  iufr  particu- 
larlv  sanL,Miiiiar\"  :  the  men  li"_dit  hand  to  liaiid  in  unbridled 
passion  and  aim  tlnir  thrusts  at  the  niosf  \-uhierable 
parts  of  the  bo(iv  the  h(  ad,  tjie  elii  sf,  and  the  stomach. 
The\-  throw  their  whole  streiiM^tli  into  the  one  purp<isc  ot" 
killing,  not  of  woundin;.:  only,  and  no  one  escapes  death 
if  he  floes  not  succeed  in  killinLj  his  adv(  rsaiy.  .\s  a  rule 
there  are  few  survivr)rs  after  a  })ayonet   tiLrlit. 

Aerial  •aarfare  by  means  of  aeroplanes  and  airships 
has  beeoni'"  a  really  diabolical  nxthod  of  taking  'he  lif«' 
of  h'lnian  )•<  in^s  who  form  no  part   of  the  liijhtin;;  armies, 


Savagery  Between  Civilized  Nations    'J9;i 

of  Jitta('kin<4  uiilortil'uil  towns,  and  of  dcstro)ui;^  iiionu- 
nu-ntal  works  of  art,  private  propt-rty,  etc.,  and  is  one 
a;,'aiiist  wliic'Ii  the  whole  civilized  world  should  havit 
lod<,'ed  the  most  eiiipliatic  protests.  This  drojjj)iii<.^  ol' 
boinhs  otlu-rwise  than  on  I'orlilieations  and  armies  is 
absolute  barbarism,  a  new  invention  which  has  brou^^dit 
-sluime  and  dishonour  on  the  bellio(ivnts  and  which  has 
been  more  i)articularly  exploited  by  Germany  with  her 
Zeppelins. 

Even  though  the  rules  for  aerial  warfare,  to  the  effeet 
that  only  rtconfuii.'i.sdnccs  and  attacks  on  Jiij^fttin'^  forces 
and  fortifiaitioN.s  are  allowed,  have  not  been  ecjclified,  let 
alone  ratilied  by  an  international  conference,  they  arc 
surely  self-evident  and  belong  to  the  most  elementary 
])rinei{)les  t)f  international  law,  being  an  exijression  c^f 
the  sense  of  justice  of  the  nations. 

According  to  the  international  agreements  on  the  rules 
of  war,  the  aerial  bombarchnent  of  unfortitied  towns 
should  i)e  regarded  as  a  crinw  ])ure  and  simj)le,  and  those 
guilty  of  such  ill-deeds  should  be  hanged  like  \'ulgar 
malefactors  \vhen  their  aircraft  lia])pens  to  be  shot  down. 
Russia  has  foimd  it  necessary  to  issue  a  notice  to  the  effect 
that  such  bombardment  from  the  air  will  be  regard(-d  as 
piracy,  since  documents  have  been  found  on  dead  German 
olheers  showing  that  the  Emperor  \Villiam  had  i>rdered 
them  to  treat  the  Cossacks  as  rol)bers. 

Mines'  (it  sc(i  as  u^ed  in  this  war  an-  one  ol'  the  mo.^t 
barbarous  weaj)ons,  which  injure  not  only  the  l)elligerent 
parties,  but  also  the  citizens  and  ships  of  neutral  countries. 

By  sowing  mines  in  the  North  Sea,  with  a  total  (li^I•egard 
for  international  tratlic,  whereby  a  numi)er  of  lishing- 
vesscls  and  merchant-ships  of  neutral  countries  ha\'e  been 
lost  and  numberless  people  drownetl,  Cierniaiiy  has  shown 
once  again  that  to  her  there  is  no  such  thing  as  inter- 
national law,  and  that,  as  the  Imperial  Chancellor, 
Bethmann-llollweg,  said  about  the  violation  of  Belgian 
neutrality,  •"Necessity  knows  no  law."'  Everything, 
apparently,    may    be    tloiie    for    the    sake    ^*(    German}'  s 


294        Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

"  necessity/'  and  Gcnnany  is  doinnr  nauylit  but  defending 
lier^cil". 

It  should  he-  put  uii  record  that  Germany,  although 
a  signatory  to  'I'lu-  Hague  C'onvmtion  of  I'.KiT,  has  Ikiii 
guilty  ot  violating  it  in  tlu-  tollowing  ways  : 

(Ij  Mines  havf  not  hrcn  laid  in  ^ueh  a  way  as  to  make 
thini  harmUss  if  t(»rn  adrift. 

("Jj  Ci(  rinany  has  not  taken  stt  ps  to  provide  for  tlu- 
safety  ol  ptae(  ful  navigators,  mines  have  n(jt  been  sys- 
tematiealh'  watehetl,  and  nothing  has  been  done  to  indicate 
the  dangerous  areas  to  neutral  shij)])ing. 

CJermany  not  having  scored  a  decisivt-  victory,  the  war 
has  now  begun  to  be  conducted  by  that  country  in  a 
more  and  more  barbarctus  manner  and  with  open  dis- 
regard for  the  princij)les  of  the  laws  of  nations  and  the 
acet  j)tril  rulis  of  waii'art'.  As  instances  of  this  1  may 
cite  the  (German  airship  bombardnu  nt  (»f  uid'ortified 
Knglish  towns  and  \illag(s  anil,  n\  hat  is  evt  n  worse,  the 
appalling  ha\oe  wiiieh  (i(  rman  lloating  tnitiis  and  .vi//>- 
tiunimy  ha\f  wrought  not  only  amongst  the  Jirilish  but 
also  amongst  niutral  merchant  ship^,  lishing-vessels,  and 
ennu'iant  sjiij.s.  One's  reason  is  almost  numlx-d  by  these 
mis(i(  rds,  which  ha\f  already  fakm  a  toll  of  hundrtds  of 
lives  and  r<^ult(<l  in  enormous  material  loss.  It  looks 
as  if  the  (iermans  had  gone  rasing  mad  and  wanted  to 
show  the  world  what  {\\c  Jurnr  'J\ul(inicus  rt  ally  is.  Or 
ha\i-  (•<  rtaiii  siibmarin<-  eomnianders  tak(  n  K-a\'e  of  their 
sensi  >  '.'  (iiiiiian  sulpiiiariius  s(  ( m  to  tor|)e<lo  Nrssels 
indi-iiiiiiUiateU  without  waiiiiiig  and  without  knowing 
will  till  r  thf  sjiijis  are  U'utral  \(s-.(Is  ..r  can}'  luutral 
pass<  iig<  r-^.  S\Mii<n.  .\orwa\,  1  )rii!iiai  k,  and  Holland 
ha\<-   ahi  ady   lo  t    a   larL.'''   niimt"!'  of  shij.s   and   li\(s. 

JiitMisc  iii(li;_'nat  loll  was  lilt  i  \  c  r_\  w  Ip  ic  whm  the 
stiaiiMi-  l-'iildlitt  with  its  Ml)  passi  mm,  j-^  ;iii,|  (■i(  w  ot  KM) 
wa.  toij,r(io<(i  ill  April  r.'l.'):  oiil_\  live  miiiutis  wire 
ailoW((l  ill  which  to  g(  t  |ias--(  iiL'i  rs  and  eiew  into  the 
boat  >  ;       wjirii     th<      tolj.'do     was     lauiielii  d     nhhh      ii|     the 


Savagery  Between  Civilized  Nations    *J95 

latter  were  still  suspended  Iroin  their  davits  and  only  one 
boat  had  reaelied  the  water,  with  the  result  that  about 
100  {)COj)le  were  dri)wned. 

Tiie  atroeities  eonnnitted  hy  means  of  (Jcrnian  suh- 
niarines  seemed  to  reach  a  eliinax  when,  with  the  most 
^duistly  callousness,  placin*,'  other  similar  exj)l<)its  com- 
})l(.'tely  in  the  shade,  one  of  the  world's  larj^c^t  jtasseuL,'*  r- 
steamers,  the  Cunarder  Lusildiiid,  with  '_'!»;()  j)coj)lf  on 
board,  was  sunk  off  the  Irish  coast  on  Ma\  7  1)V  torpedoes 
disehar«,H(l  from  a  Cierman  submarine,  'J'he  \(  ^m  1  sank, 
after  ei<,diteen  mimites.  The  numixr  of  livis  lost  was 
l.*59(»,  and  only  7(il-  were  rescued. 

There  was  a  word  here  and  there  in  the  (German  pap»  rs 
expressin<r  rei^^ret  at  the  loss  of  life,  but  in  othi  rs  t!i<  re 
was  a  note  of  the  most  luunistakable  Irimnph.  "  l\v  the 
vigilance  of  one  of  our  U-boats,''  chortles  the  liirliner 
Bocrscn  Courier,  "we  have  been  able  to  sink  this  titan 
of  the  seas  ;  by  a  sin<fle  blow  a  vessel  worth  tens  of  millions 
of  marks  has  been  annihilated."  Not  a  word  about  the 
innocent  victims,  not  a  line  siionestin<,'  compassion  for  the 
sorrow  of  thousands.  "  There  is,"  tcleLjraj)hed  a  IJerlin 
correspondent  of  the  Slockhohns  Da^bhuL  "  a  e<  rtain 
feeling  oi  salisjaclion  and  pride  that  the  Ciermans.  despite 
the  jiatrols  of  the  British  Fleet,  ha\'e  bei'U  al)le  to  justify 
their  warning." 

But  from  all  corners  of  the  earth  came  the  niuniimous 
verdict  which  the  rest  of  the  world,  with  its  sense  of  det-euey 
and  justice  unwarped,  has  given  on  the  (ierman  crime. 

The  Ciermans  in  due  course  came  forward  with  the 
proofs  suj-)jiosed  to  show  that  they  acted  correctlij.  The 
argiunents  have  been  weighed  and  have  been  found  want- 
ing.  We  know  what  they  are.  Count  Bei'iistorff.  it  is 
said,  in  an  open  learning  urged  the  |)ul)jic  in  America 
not  to  travel  by  the  Lu.sitania,  and  ^venl  ^o  far  as  to 
have  personal  warnings  sent  to  in(li\i(Iu;il  passengt'rs. 
But,  apart  from  the  fact  that  the  waniings  could  nut  reach 
all  ivJiose  lives  zeere  forfeited,  nobody  could  have  taken 
the   notice   of  the   projected   crime    for   anything   l)ut    an 


29G        Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

empty  threat,  a  piece  of  bluff,  ll'lio  could  possibly  iniugine 
tfuit  the  Girtnun  Admirnlty  intended  in  cold  blood  to  commit 
an  act  xcfiich,  rtioltin^  (is  German  learjure  has  been,  surpassed 
in  eyuiciNiu  t-vi  r)  tliin<,'  that  liad  «,'(»ne  hef(.)re  ? 

The  Cic  riiian  plea  that  a  zcdrninii  had  been  ^'iviii  must 
be  disinisstd  eateiiorically  on  the  ground  that  the  crime 
remains  a  crime  even  if  notified  beforehand  ;  just  as  jtre- 
metiitatcd  murder  is  judLfrd  mori-  siverely  than  man- 
slaughter, (Germany's  moral  responsibility  beeame  greater 
wiun  it  was  brought  to  light  that  the  deed  had  been 
planned  and  prepared  lon<i  beforehand. 

It  has  !)( <-n  alleged  that  the  Lusitania  was  an  auxiliary 
cruisrr,  but  the  fact  that  the  ship  was  on  the  list  of  vessels 
wjiieh  in  certain  eireiunstances  might  be  used  as  shij)s  of 
war  is,  of  coursf,  no  pro(»f  that  she  made  her  last  voyage 
in  that  capacity  ;  the  Ihitish  Admiralty  has,  in  fact, 
indignantly  repuchated  the  (ierman  allegation. 

It  has  also  bicn  asserted  that  the  Lusitania  carried  large 
quantities  of  (utnnutiition  and  'ear  uuiltriul  in  lur  holds, 
but  this  contention  has  ikjI  been  jauntd  and  does  not  sound 
j)art ieularly  convincing. 

Hut  (  \tn  if  this  was  tlu-  case,  and  c  vt  ri  if  ^V(■  acct  pt  tlic 
prejiostcrous  (itruunt  altitude  that  the  (iermans  are  entithd 
m  their  submarine  \sarfar<'  to  (utrride  <ill  rubs  of  inter- 
nalioudl  la:c  regarding  seizure  and  capture,  and  even 
assuming  that  tin-  (iei'mans  were  thus  justilit-d  in  sinking 
the  V(  sscl.  Ill,-  (iirman  crime  re/nains  tu:  t  rlheb  ss  in  all 
its  nuLid  ini'piili/. 

DuriuL;  tli'-  tii-sf  month  of  the  submariiu-  war  tlu-  ]>as- 
Sfng(  rs  and  er(  \\s  of  tin-  doonifd  steamers  were  L,'i\<n  a 
chance  nf  siiiiun  tin  ir  li;is  ;  tlie\-  w  (  ic  allauid  fiir  nuudier 
oj  minntis  ui  ( i  >^sin  ij  to  lii\\(  r  ttie  boats.  Hut  in  tlie  ease* 
of  the  Lusitania  the  jusl  torpedo  was  disehai'L'ed  i^diiout 
any  \cartnu'j  -i.  huli ;  (  r. 

In^t  ead  of  allow  in;,'  the  life  sa\  iiilT  <  'i»eial  ioiis  to  pidcei-d 
unhamperi  (1,  b\-  which  me.uis  jk  ihajis  the  majority  ot  the 
j)a^--i  iiL''  rs  nii^ht  lia\c  bei n  r(  seued.  nnnlhtr  tntjudo  'lUs 
di  I  iiitr'ji  li  ul  lilt'  s/iij)  :    tills  time  she  i.c(  i\(  ij  a  hea\  y  list. 


Savagery  Between  Civilized  Nations    207 

the  lowering  ol'  tlic  houls  was  niiide  luoie  (lillicull,  il"  not 
impossible,  and  a  i'ew  niinutis  later  the  Lii.siUtnid  went 
to  the  holtoni.  The  lirinj^  of  this  second  torpedo  was  a 
piece  of  utter  and  perverse  hloodthirst incss,  which  conld 
have  no  other  ohjec-t  than  to  kill  for  the  sakt-  of  kiliin;^'. 
The  above  aceonnt,  by  the  way,  is  taken  Ironi  Da^tns 
Nyhctcr  'Vdiiov  :  O.  v.  Zwei<,d)er<rk,  M.l',  and  I  a;^'ree 
in  every  respect  with  that  paper's  view  of  the  ciini(  ,  and 
its  verdict  is  shared  by  the  greater  part  of  the  Swetlish 
Press. 

The  wiiole  of  Swetlen  has  been  deej)ly  stirred  b}-  this 
policy  of  lawlessness  and  murder,  which,  if  (iernian  states- 
men and  leading  organs  deiVnd  the  Lii.sit(uii<i  crime,  places 
Germany  outside  the  pale  of  humanit}'.  We  have  to 
observe  a  strict  political  neutrality  in  the  war,  but  this 
should  not  prevent  us  from  Ktudly  protesting  against  this 
liorrible  degeneration  of  Ciermanic  megalomania. 

KarLsfad.stidfiinf^cn-  cd'din-  :  Mr.  M.  Ilelllxrg,  M.l*. 
conmientcd  as  follows  :  ''  There  is  sonu  thing  utlerl\-  insen- 
sate, something  utterly  mad,  in  such  conduct,  which  rcNcals 
a  total  lack  of  a  sense  of  proportion.  It  looks  as  if  the 
Gernuins  tliought  nothing  of  Haunting  their  c<»nlem|)t  in 
the  face  of  humanity  and  ranging  the  two  remaining  (ireat 
Powers  beside  their  enemies.  13ut  such  ruthless  arrogance 
must  not  remain  unpunished.  H  niU'<l  of  iuctssitij  rausc 
the  cnuiitij  of  nations,  and  everything  in  their  natures  that 
is  proud  and  free,  everything  that  speaks  for  culture  and 
luunanity,  nuist  reve)lt  at  such  j)rincii)les.  Like  the 
Russian  despotism  jjcrsisting  as  it  iXoc-^  in  the  constant 
struggle  with  the  best  elements  of  the  Kussiau  nation 
the  insolent  Ccnnan  Ca.sarisfn,  that  faithful  cIiaini>ion 
of  reaction,  stands  forth  as  the  defiant  challenger  of 
humanity.'' 

A  SicfdisJi  prolt'st  attains!  the  "  Lu-^itania  "  crinu-  testi- 
fying te)  the  opinie)U  held  tlu're'  amongst  sane  peopK-.  anel 
signed  by  a  large  number  of  j)ersons  repiese  nt  ing  Sweelish 
science  and  art,  was  addressed  to  tlu'  Knghsli  newspapers 
a   few  days   after   the  catastrophe'.      It    te'ok   the-   fe.rm   e)f 


298        Before,  During,  and  After  1911 

the  following  ttligraiii  :  "  Vou  in  England  know  that  the 
Swedisii  nation,  practically  sjxaking,  stands  united  round 
its  (Jovcrnnunt  in  tlu-  dt  niand  for  the  niaintinancc 
of  the  strictest  political  neutrality,  liut  this  i)y  no  means 
prevents  a  great  jiart  of  our  pn>plr  wlu  tlur  a  majority 
or  not  we  cannot  say  from  i)eing  (nn/thiti^  hut  luiitrul 
in  tlitir  ft t  lings  rfgiir<iifi<^  the  nulhods  of  xvinftirc  adopltd 
in  this  horril/lf  zciir,  and  which  Ikim'  now  culminattnl  in 
the  sinking  of  tlif  ^'  Lu.sit<initi."  The  misconception  that 
iLur  susjjtnds  all  !<izcs  of  human itij  will  surely  j)ro\e  fatal 
not  only  to  future  ci\ilization,  hut  ahove  all  to  the  senti- 
vunt  (f  human  solidarily  which  is  so  vital  to  the  smaller 
naticjns."'  The  telegram  was  sigiud  hy  a  large  number  of 
prominent  jjeoj)le  the  names  of  many  of  whom  are  house- 
hold words  in  Sweden. 

As  an  excusr  for  their  inhuman  aerial  and  submarine 
warfare  against  iMigland,  the  (Germans  j)lead  that  drtat 
Britain  In  gun  to  zicgf  a  harhurous  xcar  against  (iermany  l)y 
Seeking  to  reduce  her  by  .sluridtion. 

But  it  docs  not  set  ni  to  jia\c  been  r<  ali/cd  tjiat  in  all 
wars  it  has  been  a  matter  of  cMursc  that  if  a  d- cisiori  is 
not  cjuickly  reached  by  foi-ec  of  anus,  sliintagc  nf  food 
may  be  relied  upon  t(»  bring  about  ea|Ht  ulat  ion.  Much 
privation  may  have  to  be  endured  in  this  \vay,  i)Ut  it 
can  be  i)rought  to  an  end  at  any  time  by  lading  down 
anus  and  al)an(l'>riiug  the  hojte  of  \ict(»r\'.  Hrsidcs,  the 
nameless  suff<  ring  and  loss  of  life  and  property  caused 
by  aeti\-e  warfare  may  be  a\'oid<-d  li\'  this  consummation. 
Tiie  soca!l(  (i  star\ation  m<tliotl  ui  ed,  therefore,  be  no 
Worse  than  the  Imf  eji<i\-  m(  thod. 

Hut  if  is  ()b\i.iiis  that  a  .State  which  <  iiL;aL:es  m  war 
iiiu -t  r<  gaid  it  as  one  of  its  priiiiai\  duties  t.i  make  pro- 
\isi"ii  tor  a  sulfiei'  iiey  ci|'  t' i  fur  a  lung  time  a!i(  ad. 

If  is  (juite  eertain,  on  tli«-  ofh.  |-  h;iiid,  fiiat  those  in 
charge  of  (ieiiiiaii\  "s  destinifs  did  not  ei  .nf  ■  iiiplal  e  that 
Ihr  :L(ir  -uiiiild  lat  as  Inifj  as  it  has  dnni\  l'"r  that  pai-f  t.f 
their  plan  of  mobih/.af  i< 'H  whieh  enneiins  the  \\>in\  supply 
of  f  li.     pi  ij.iilaf  |i  III    has   not    reei  i\  (  il   adi  i  jiiat  e   at  t  (lit  M  ill. 


Savagery  Between  Civilized  Nations    ^^J'J 

It  is  peculiar  to  note  that  tlie  (n.-rnwins  are  u<nv  aeeusin;^ 
England  of  barbarism  by  seeking  to  starve  out  Cierniany, 
seeing  tliat  we  know  that  they  xlanrd  out  Paris  in  IhTl, 
the  city  capituhiling  only  wlien  its  two  niilhon  inhabitants 
were  no  longer  able  to  withstand  the  ravages  of  famine. 

How  the  Germans,  whilst  believing  themselves  to  be 
"  God's  ciiosen  people,"  can  yet  defend  the  LusiUniia 
crime  has  been  tlemonstrated  in  an  amazing  manner  by 
a  German  clergyman,  Pastor  Ciiinthcr,  whose  sermon  to 
the  German  congregation  at  Christ iania  on  May  U  (as 
reported  by  Slockholnui  Tidningcn)  contained  the  following 
observations  : 

"  The  Germans  do  not  trouble  themselves  about  the 
opinions  of  others.  The  vitici'  of  conscience  is  tlu  ir  only 
standard.  In  the  World  War  its  conscience  has  been  the 
German  j)eople's  comfort  and  strength.  The  sinking  of 
the  Lnsitania  leaves  the  German  conscience  untarnished. 
England,  and  England  alone,  must  bear  the  responsibility 
for  this  terrible  tragedy.  The  torpedoing  of  the  Lnsitania 
was  the  right  answer  to  England's  brutal  and  illegal  policy 
of  attempting  to  starve  out  Germany.  U  England's  will 
were  paramount,  thousands  of  innocent  -women  and  children 
in  Germany  would  be  tortured  to  deatii.  Why  should 
the  lives  of  the  Lusitania's  inissengers  be  held  more  j)recious 
than  those  of  German  women  and  children  ?  Might  is 
viight,  and  the  accountability  to  God  for  this  dreadful 
hai)[)ening  rests  on  England."' 

Apart  from  the  denial  o(  the  British  Admiralty,  the 
chief  custom-house  ollicer  of  the  port  of  New  York  has 
declared  ofllcially  that  the  Lnsitania  did  not  carry  a 
single  gun. 

The  Germans,  on  the  other  hand,  say  that  the  ship 
"  demonstrably  ''  carried  ammunition  5U)0  eases  and 
this  is  claimed  by  them  in  justilieation  of  the  crime.  But 
710  proofs  have  been  produced,  nothing  but  eni{ity  asser- 
tions. 

Truly  the  Germans  have  not  forgotten  the  Imperial 
connuand  :    "'  Go  ve  forth  as  Huns  I 


300        Before,  Diring,  and  After  1914 

It  c-aunut  1)1-  too  rliarly  niiphasizid  that  twii  it"  tiie 
LuAilania  luul  hi  in  arinril  with  i^ains  ami  luiil  carritil 
ammunition  on  hoard,  and  cm  n  thou^di  the  Ciirman 
aml)as>>ador  at  WashiuLfton  issiud  warnings  a<,'ainst  travcl- 
hn^'  hy  the  \  issil,  thi-  sinkin;^  ol"  her  riinains  a  monstrous 
crimi-  lor  tlic  reason  tliat  no  titnt  tir/.v  iilhrutd  fur  saiin<i 
the'  iKi.^stntiti\s  (uul  cft-Cy  uitli  thr  result  that  thr  maj<»rity 
j)irishiii  misirahly. 

As  n-^'ariN  thr  (icrman  amhassador's  warninj,',  \vr  Ihid 
that  his  niws[)ai)(r  ad\(rtiscnunt  did  not  eauti(»n  pi()j)lc 
a;,'ainst  t ra\ilhn!,'  hy  thr  Lusilania,  hut  minly  in  a 
gt-mral  way  aijainst  traNclhni,'  hy  Kn^hsli  vrssils. 

\\i-  i-annot  hut  IVil  the  dcrjxst  i-oinpassion  for  all  the 
-iicfinis  of  tlif  tiv//'.  those  thousands  of  mie\'ously  wounded 
who  haNc  lain  helph  ss  on  the  hattlefulds  and  there  died 
a  liii^'erinLT  (hath,  oi-  who  ha\'e  heeii  carried  off  to  the 
hospitals  mutilated,  \\ith  Imrrihle  L;aiiiiiM  wounds,  siiffcrini,' 
from  L'JUit^rc  lie,  with  aniputatid  huihs,  si|_;htless.  (te.,  or 
those  countless  thousands  striekiii  down  li\'  maliLTuant 
disras.  s  hioiiLrht  on  hy  Ii;!idships  and  nieh  iiient  weather 
tlie  many  \ietiins  of  tin-  "trench  disi  ase,"  with  feet  and 
l<';,'s  hlacki  IK  (1  hy  a  kind  of  niort  ilicat  ion.  and  those 
unhappN'  civatnris  whose  ner\('Us  s\st(iii  is  for  e\'cr 
wiv ckid  hy  the  horrors  o|'  niNirtiuhm,'  slauL'hf(r,  or 
those.  aL'ain,  who  are  worn  out  hv  nightmares,  collapsing 
into  a  state  of  apatliN',  list  lessness.  alurration,  madness. 
In  the  tiiiiches  the  sdldiers  suffer  lion-ihly  from  ni^'ht- 
maies,  to  \\liieli  the  rVeneli  nnlitarN'  siiiL'' on.  Hr.  H. 
HoiUL'it,  has  (!e\(,t(d  much  time  and  which  lie  ei>nsidfi-s 
to  lie  at  tie  ri  II  ,t  of  ps\(jiie  alllielions  ani'iiiL'st  the  com- 
hatant  foi<',  s.  Worn  out  h\-  incessant  dut\.  the  sdlduis 
drop  (iff  to  sl((ji.  hut  tjieu'  slumliers  .are  so<>n  disturhed 
hy  jihantasms  ol'  Avhat  lli'\  ha\i-  s,  (  u  (miiix  soldiers 
without  h' ads  or  ai'Uis,  or  iitheiwise  ternhK  mutilatid, 
the  hill  stiller  of  shells,  (  tc.  a  I  id  maii\  slalt  up  .and  shri(  k 
in     teiiur,     att.ackiiiL,'    their    comiades     in     tli<ir    ship,     or 

\".alld'MIIL'      ahollt       like      sh  ep    VSalkels.        These      III ;.' Il  t  IU.ir(  s 


Savagery  Between  Civilized  Nations    .301 

give  them  no  rest  and  frighten  them  out  of  their  s<iises, 
often  turning  the  trenehes  into  the  senil)l!inef'  of  mad- 
houses. 

The  w;ir  brings  suffering  not  only  uj)on  tlioso  who  take 
part  in  it,  upon  the  wounded  and  those  ^vllo  undergo 
hardships  on  the  hatth-lield,  hut  also  on  nuinherless  nun- 
comhatants,  tlie  wives,  niotliers,  sisters,  and  daughters  at 
home  who  have  lost  their  male  supporters  and  are  icdueed 
to  penury,  as  well  as  those  who  owing  to  Wm-  war  arc 
expelled  from  a  eomitry  l)eeause  their  own  people  are 
at  war  with  it.  Here  in  Stockholm  we  have  had  many 
opportunities  of  seeing  and  hearing  thousands  of  Hussians 
who  had  been  expelU'd  from  (Germany,  and  thousands 
of  Ciermans  who  have  been  (le})orted  from  Russia  all 
proceeding  homeward  via  Sweden.  They  have  had  much 
to  endure  and  have  had  to  leave  cvcrNihing  behind,  and 
many,  probably  for  ever,  have  been  dei)rived  of  their  live- 
lihood, their  factories  and  businesses,  at  which  they  have 
toiled  and  laboured  for  many  a  year.  Horses  have  been 
taken  for  war  service  without  compensation,  banks  have 
withheld  invested  funds,  factories  have  been  closed  ;  in 
fact,  we  have  seen  here  in  Swed(^n  thousands  of  persons 
who  arc  totally  ruined  and  \v'\\\  lind  nothing  to  do  in  the 
home  country  to  which  they  are  returning. 

Besides,  all  men  of  military  age  ha\-e  been  retained  as 
pris<Miers  of  war  and  taken  to  intermnent  camps,  where 
they  lead  an  idle  and  pitiful  existence,  and  are  pn-wntetl 
from  supporting  wives  and  children  who  have  been  driven 
out  of  the  country. 

Again,  let  us  think  of  the  loss  to  civilization  which  this 
war  has  entailed  :  the  killing  of  thousands  of  eminent. 
intelligent  men  representing  learning  aiid  research,  and 
who  might  have  rendered  their  countries,  nay.  the  whole 
world,  the  most  invaluable  services. 

All  common  ideals  have  disappeared,  all  infrrnational 
cultural  effort  ha.f  been  rendered  i)npo.<:sible,  for  the  nations 
hate  one  another  and  will  not  co-operate. 


302        Before,  Uiking,  and  After  1914 

What  crodjiicc  \vill  Ik lux forth  be  nttac-htd  to  inter- 
national  trcatii\s  ? 

To  study  intcrnatiunal  la:c  is  now  to  waste  one's  tinu-.  At 
the  Copcniiau'en  University,  for  instance,  tlie  subject  of 
international  law  has  htcn  provisionally  dtUtcd  fnnn  the 
la:c  c.ia  mi  nations.  Professor  Jcir^Miisen  notilied  his  students 
tliat  they  would  not  ha\'e  to  j)rc]vire  for  an  examination 
on  this  subject,  sccinij  that  tlu-  j>ro\ivii>ns  of  international 
law  Were  no  l<»n^'tr  beintj  observed.  This  ai)plies  in  par- 
ticular to  the  Declaration  of  London,  which,  as  stated  by 
Professor  J<">r;,H-n-^(  II  in  his  address,  has  bem  suspiiuhd, 
more  (  spt'cially  ^^ith  reuard  to  the  ri<.jhts  of  neutral  Powers. 

Kuropeans.  who  ha\"c  hitiierto  looked  down  on  the 
A^iatic■^  I'rom  the  eminence  of  the  ir  l<ifty  cixilizat ion.  must 
now  hide  their  head^  in  shame. 

The  miserable  condition  of  l-'uro]>e  r( Ataled  by  the 
\\'orld  War:  the  l)urnini:  hatred  bttwein  the  nations,  the 
(lest  ruef  ion  ot'  life  and  ])ropert  %•  on  a  scale  iieNcr  prcNiou^ly 
witness(<l:  all  tjiis  has  d(stro\fd  tli<-  re  sp( ct  in  \vliieh 
I-",iirop(  an  ci\ili/,at  ion  has  be(  n  lu  Id.  Profi  ssor  Miik 
Xystroin.  who  has  laboun d  with  so  much  succ(  ss  at  the 
Shansi  I'nivtrsity  in  China,  had  intemi'd  on  his  ntui-ii  in 
1  !•]  1  f  o  b(  L'in  a  s(  ii(  s  of  addresses  on  l'".ui-op(  an  ci\  ill/at  ion  : 
but,  as  hi-  said  on  h  a\  iuLT  Stockholm,  this  scheme  must  be 
(lropp(  (I.  for  tli«-  (  liinesc  now  r<ali/.e  to  the  full  what  a 
jiitifnl  sjiam  I-'jiropean  eultuie  lias  htcome. 

I  s(  ,iii(  t  ini' s  wish  that  eeitaiu  aufhois  wo\ild  cease,  in 
at  t  eiiipt  i!ii_'  to  (Xpj.iiii  the  uaiiiiless  inJsirN'  of  this  war. 
to  iiit  loiliiee  leli^'ioii  ainl  ))hiloso|ili\-,  that  tlii\  would 
alistain  iVoni  falkinu'  "f  (Jod's  |  ii-o\  iiji  ner  .and  His  (hsi^ns. 
of  tie  laws  ol'  |ii-.toi-\-,  of  till'  sonl  of  the  piojilc  in  this 
couiitr\  or  that,  of  tie-  re\<lation  of  tli«'  cosmic  mmd.  of 
t  hi-  port  <  nt  of  t  hf  world -spirit,  etc..  all  of  w  hieh  are  em  [it  y 
and  m<  auiiejliss  phrases.  A\va\'  with  all  philo<;ophy,  all 
morali/ini,'  Uiusiiejs  I      Wliat  wi   see  is  chaos,  nofhin^f  i\^r. 

lafc  on  earth  in  fhoM  cwunti-i.  s  \v||i  vi-  thi-  wai'  is  raL'iiiu' 
has  bi  (oinr  so  dri  ailfiil.  s,,  l,f  Hish.  fii.-it  men  ;ire  forc<  d 
to  lit  (•  fj-i  III!  f  Ik  ir  homi  s,  to  w  anih  r  .alu  iiit   no  bt  1 1  ■  r  t  h.-tn 


Savagery  Between  Civilized  Nations    803 

beggars,  and  often  to  seek  shelter  underground  to  escape 
the  fury  of  their  enemy. 

We  are  ahnost  tempted  hy  tliese  dismal  thoughts  to 
hark  back  to  tiie  demonology  of  ancient  and  m<-di;eval 
times  and  to  the  old  behef  that  evil  sj)irits  do  exist,  who 
influence  men.  All  ancient  peoples  had  a  concept  iun  of 
suj)crnatural  powers  for  good  and  evil,  and  Western 
civilization  has  in  no  small  d(  gree  been  inlhii need  by 
Zoroaster's  teaching  of  Ormnzd  and  Ahriman,  th'-  jxr- 
soniticati(»ns  of  good  and  evih  It  has  always  bicn  an 
unst)lvable  riddh-  wjiy  (iod  permitted  th(  di  \  il  to  exist, 
and  why  He  did  not  destroy  his  power  when  he  ajjjjeared. 
The  devil  was  cremated,  avc  are  tohi,  but  \\v  do  not  know  that 
he  will  l)e  destroyed,  unless  j)erha])s  it  be  on  th*;  dis- 
apj:)carance  of  the  human  rac(^  Celebrated  demonologists 
of  the  Middle  Ages  wrote  a  luunber  of  works  on  the  devil 
and  his  disciples,  describing  the  origin  of  his  j)owirs ; 
they  told  us  how  his  realm  was  governed  and  that  he  had  a 
court  with  a  number  of  dignitaries  and  ollicials  :  a  higli 
chancellor,  grand  dukes  and  kings  Sataii,  Baal,  Bi(I/,el)ub, 
Leviathan,  liUcifer,  Moloch,  etc.  and  that  they  all  had 
innimierable  ministering  s|)irits  under  them.  It  was 
hardly  to  l)e  wondered  at  that  viUainy.  war.  and  d( - 
struction  dogged  the  footsteps  of  ni;ui  :  all  his  erimi  s  w(  re 
then  ascribed  to  demoniacal  inlluenee.  for  the  demons 
pervaded  everything  and  circled  througii  tlu^  air  from  one 
end  of  the  earth  to  the  other.  God.  instead  of  keeping  them 
chained  up  in  hell,  gave  them  full  freedom  to  temjit  and 
plague  men,  and  jH-rmittcd  the  Prince  of  Hell  to  demand 
human  blood  for  his  altar  sacrifices. 

I  recall  these  horrible  notions  of  bygone  ages  because 
unhappily  they  fit  our  own  time,  because  there  are  bad 
as  well  as  good  qualities  in  man,  which  assert  themselves 
in  troublous  and  warlike  times  and  turn  him  into  a  savage 
beast,  brutalizing  him  and  endowing  hini  with  de\ilish 
qualities. 

It  is  truly  pitiful  to  note  how  in  Russia  as  well  as  in 


304       Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

Germany,  on  the  outbreak  of  this  devastatinfj  World  War, 
the  people  Nvere  wont  to  aj)j)eal  to  (iod  as  their  protcetor. 
"  Onward  with  Ciod.  who  will  he  with  us  I  "'  "  God  with 
us  I  "  With  this  war-ery  the  armies  marehed  forth  to 
their  huteln  ry  and  destruetion,  hiiiulK'  oixvin;,'  the  doc- 
trine :    '■  tioc  tn  tftf  :  (inquishtd  .'  "' 

\Ve  are  li\int,'  in  a  time  when  one  has  <uuh\  eausc  to  doubt 
the  e\ist( nee  of  jionour  and  faith,  human  kindliness  and 
goodwill,  wiien  warlike  passions  have  stitU-d  reason.  There 
has  never  been  a  time  when  jxssiiuisin  was  so  justified  as 
now,  for  the  World  \N'ar,  the  greatest  and  cruellest  in 
iiistitry.  has  come  upon  us  and  we  have  falK  i\  fri>m  our 
b(jasted  civilization  to  the  barbaric  level  ol' ancient  times, 
whin  internat  imial  law  was  still  undreamt  of,  when  there 
had  been  no  (irotius,  no  I'uffcndorf,  no  Thoinasiiis,  no 
\Volff,  no  Leibnitz,  no  Kant  indeed,  for  auL'ht  we  have 
learnt,  wc  mii:ht  have  had  no  ^ri-,.at  think<rs  and  cn- 
li;illtened  statesUKIl  to  i,'ui(le  us. 

It  is  as  it'  all  tin-  powers  of  hell  h.ad  Ix  ru  let  loose,  as  if 
the  earth  had  bee<.in<-  an  inferno  with  .Satan  as  Kiu^.  It 
is  not  to  be  wctndeicd  at  if.  to  many,  the  tliou^'ht  has 
occurred  that  Satan,  not  (iod.  rules  the  \mi\ersc.  No 
womhr  that  in  many  troubTd  minds  this  doubt  has  arisen  : 
IIow  can  a  ^ooil  and  almiLihty  (iod  j»«rmit  this  horrible 
war.  wit  h  it  s  saenlie(-  of  t  he  lives  of  hundretls  of  t  hou sands 
and  of  the  wcll-beiu^  oj"  many  millions  ".'' 

One  tliini:  is  certain:  after  ten  months  ot"  the  most 
unspariiiLj  exertions  and  the  saeiiliee  of  nullions  of 
human  li\'i  •>.  (iod  h.as  not  made  (icrmany  \ietorious, 
in  spite  of  all  im[)lorin'_!  prayers  offered  up  in  churches 
and  palaces. 

In  spite  of  the  I-!m[H  Tor's  faith  in  the  ""  tremendous 
warlike  spirit  "  of'  the  (.ermans  ;  in  spite  of  liis  .appeal  to 
the  (iernian  soMk  rs'  ""  md'-mitable  will  to  conipier  "  ;  m 
spite  of  IIuidenl)urL,'"s  ■'u|>.n<.us  \ietories"  and  the  "joy 
of  battle  "  which  he  .and  other  (iti-man  generals  and 
soldiers  ha\e  di  >pja\ed.  as  placeil  on  record  m  t  he  Imperi.al 
t'  Iet;r.am  -  of  c(  in:jiat  ulat  ion  ;    in  spite  ot'  .all  this.  I  ,i  rmanv 


Savagery  Between  Civilized  Nations    305 

would  still  seem  to  have  no  prospect  of  dictating,'  peace  with 
God's  help,  when  tlic  hour  has  conic. 

Germany's  leadinjj  men,  when  they  committed  their 
country  to  the  war,  had  ^'rossly  overrated  its  ability,  in 
spite  of  many  years  of  preparation,  to  make  short  work  of 
its  enemies  and  dictate  i)eace  tj-rms  in  Paris. 

France  has  sjiown  herself  to  he  strorif^cr  than  had  ixcn 
supposed,  and  the  invasion  of  that  country  was  arrcstid 
lon<i[  a^^).  (Jreat  Britain  is  sen(lin<f  a  constant  stream  of 
fresh  troops  to  France  and  eont rihutin*^  stront^'ly  towards 
an  effective  resistance. 

Not  only  did  Italy  refuse  to  ran^je  herself  hy  the  side  of 
Germany  and  .\ustria  on  the  outbreak  of  war,  for  her 
Government  was  of  the  oi)inion  that  those  countries,  far 
from  waijin^  a  defensive  war,  were  themselves  the 
Rfjirrcssors  but  the  Austrian  treaty  eoncerninf:  the 
Trijile  .Vlliancc  was  formally  denounced  by  Italy  on  May  4, 
191."),  and  war  was  declared  afjainst  Austria  on  May  2'.i. 

The  Italian  Foreiuii  Minister,  Sonnino,  sent  the  (iovern- 
mcnts  of  tlK>  neutral  States  a  detailed  coinniiniiqut^  on 
the  rupture  with  Austria-IIunfrary,  which  shows  that  the 
tension  between  the  two  coimtries  had  existed  since  the 
very  bcirinninir  of  the  Avar  and  that  the  old  grievances 
resj-)ectinrr  Austria's  ojipression  of  Italian  subjects  had  not 
been  abated. 

"  By  brinfTfinfT  about  the  European  War,"  he  says,  "  by 
reject iufi  Serbia's  most  conciliatorj/  (Uiszcer  which  ^ave  all  the 
satisfaction  that  could  reasonably  be  demanded,  and  by 
rejectitiLl  all  proposals  for  mediation  put  forward  by  Italy 
and  other  Powers  in  order  to  save  Europe  from  a  terrible 
conflagration,  Austria-Hungary  has  with  her  own  hands 
torn  \\\)  the  Treaty  of  Alliance  with  Italy.  Moreover,  by 
her  action  against  Serbia,  Austria-Hungary  has  deliberately 
disregarded  Italy's  general  interests  in  the  Balkan 
Peninsula." 

After  all  these  iniquities,  sufferings,  and  losses  among  the 
belligerents,  after  the  miscalculations  connected  witli  the 
bringing  about  of  the  war,  after  the  disajipointments  which 

u 


306       Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

must  have  followid  when  no  decisive  victories  were  f»^rth- 
coinin^  in  sj)ite  of  months  of  sanj^niinary  lightinj^,  and  with 
the  })rosj)cct  tliat  the  war  will  end,  as  it  he^jfan,  with 
murder  on  an  unexampled  scale,  hut  with  no  decided 
advantau'*^*  for  eitlu  r  side,  whilst  the  resnltant  economic 
losses  will  cri|)j)l<-  the  nations  for  ^'cneratioiis.  and  eoii- 
sideritiL'  further  that  the  war  mi^ht  actually  ha\-e  heen 
av(  rtt  tl.  it  is  inditd  surprisinjj;  that  none  of  those  caj)al)le 
of  hrinuMnt,'  such  calamities  uj)on  the  world  have,  like  Judas 
Iscariot,  flit  impt  lied  to  atone  for  it  all  with  their  lives. 


XIII 

DANGERS  OF  OVKIM'OPULATIOX  :  WHAT  STA- 
TISTICS TEACH  :  GEUMANVS  OVERPOPILA- 
TION  A  CONSTANT  MENAC  E  TO  PEA(  E. 

Thkuk  have  been  times  wlun  it  was  neeessarv  to  promote 
the  growth  of  tlie  jxjpuhition  or  when  war  was  the  ahiiost 
normal  state,  as  in  antiquity,  tlie  Middle  Ages,  and  after 
thcThirty  Years  War,  wlun  a  great  j)art  of  the  jiojjiihition 
liad  sneeumbed  on  tliebattleliekls  or  through  the  jx-stilcnecs 
which  followed  in  tlic  wake  of  war.  At  such  times  tiic 
Governments  were  compelled  to  try  to  make  good  sueh 
losses,  and  to  this  end  often  doled  out  land  to  the  j)o<>r. 

In  our  time  the  situation  is  reversed  in  many  c-ountries. 

The  leading  civilized  countries  are  already  over-])opu- 
lated,  and  every  dislocation  of  trade  and  industry  brings 
about  great  hardshij)s  and  sufferings  owing  to  the  dillieulty 
which  members  of  all  classes  luiNc  in  obtaining  a  livilihood. 

But  even  under  normal  conditions,  when  war>  are  not 
raging  and  crops  are  satisfactory,  the  majority  find  more 
ditliculty  than  should  be  the  case  in  making  ends  mert, 
and  this  usually  gives  ris(»  to  dissatisfaction  and  to  an 
indifference  to  the  loftier  asjx^cts  of  life  which  is  not  hard 
to  understand. 

Reproduction  is  still  to  countless  numbers  a  {purely 
instinctive  act,  as  in  the  epoch  of  the  cave-dwellers  and  in 
the  Stone  Age,  and  now,  in  the  twentieth  century,  in  the 
great  majority  of  cases,  no  attempt  is  made  to  regulate  it. 
Yet  it  ought  to  be  the  aim  of  an  enlightened  age  to  civilize 
this  primitive  condition,  to  bring  reflection  and  the  feeling 

SOT 


308        Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

of  rcsponsil)iIity  to  bear  on  the  sexual  instinet  with  an  eye 
to  the  inipr<>V( merit  <>1"  tlie  raee  and  the  (hity  to  eoinbat 
poverty  and  (hstress  tliicniL'h  over-p»»j)idation  with  its 
attendant  i  \ils  :  a  jurp(  tual  strii;,'^'le  for  existenee  and 
de\astatiii<,'  l)arharous  wars. 

That  inarjy  e<»untries  of  the  <;lohe  are  already  ovcr- 
j)(tpulat<(l.  is  ('(rtain;  and  although  there  are  nunurous 
tract >>,  as  in  Africa,  S«)uth  Ann  riea,  and  Siberia,  wlu  re 
th(  re  is  still  room  for  millions,  it  is  nev(  rtlielcss  a  fact  that 
most  countries  arc  now  so  densely  j)oj)idate(l  that  many 
niillicms  fuid  life  a  hard  struj:^'le  and  suffer  want,  and  a 
constant  increase  (tf  the  jK>j)ulation  of  the  ^htbc  fiiiist  thus 
S'xin  f)tc(;}>ic  (I  re///  uraif  (ltin<i(r.  Although  exact  lij^ures 
are  lackinfr  with  re^jard  tot  he  poj)ulat  ion  of  many  coimtrics, 
reliable  statisticians  ha\c  cousichred  themsehcs  justified 
in  comj)utiii<:  the  population  of  the  ;,dobe  as  under  : 

In  1S7()  about  1  too  millions 

..  lini      .,      1700 

that  is  to  say  an  increase  of  MOO  millions  in  forty-four  years, 
or  about  .vere/j  tnlllions  ptr  (iimuin. 

Whilst  on  th<-  siil)j(>et  of  the  menace  to  the  world's  jx  ace 
through  over  population.  I  may,  amon<j  (  xtra  I-'.urojx  an 
Stat*  '^,  instance  .Japan,  a  Power  which  has  already  adopted 
a  pojiev  of  expansion  made  necessary  by  its  colossal  growth 
of  population.  IIer<'  are  some  fi^uircs  on  .Jajians  j)oj)u- 
lation: 

isso   .....      .'{S  millions 

r.xto   .           -                      .           .      1.') 
I'.H'J a.T 

To  mak<-  room  for  and  feed  her  L'rowint:  jiopulation 
.Tapan  mad<-  war  on  China  and  Russia,  and  her  prize  ^v;lS 
Korea.  Now,  in  the  World  War,  .lajtan,  as  Hritain's  ally, 
has  attack<<l  the  (i»rman  po^m  ssiun  (the  so  callrd  miicty- 
niii<  \'  ars  1<  a^<-)  of  Kiao  eliau.  which  fell  after  an  en<  r;,'(  fie 
(l«r<  iici-. 


Dangers  of  Over-population  809 

This  was  followed  by  protractfd  iK'j,'()tiatioiis  between 
Cliiiui  and  .Ja])an  in  rc^'ard  to  certain  demands  of  the  latter, 
antl  a  settli-nient  lias  now  been  reaelu-d  which  ensures  a 
durable  peace  in  the  Kast  and  has  j)ronioted  the  iViendly 
relations  between  Jai)an  and  China. 

The  Japanese  Ciovernnunt  issued  at  the  bi-;^Mnniii^  of 
May  1015  a  C()»uni(ni(/ut'  res])eetinLj  the  whole  strini/  of 
questions  which  formed  the  subject  of  her  ne;4otiat  ions 
with  China,  accompanied  by  an  account  of  their  pro<rress, 
China's  concessions  and  objections,  and  the  linal  ba^is  of 
settlement. 

The  net  result  of  the  .Japanese  (hinands  for  j)rivile;,'ed 
treatment  in  certain  Chinese  provinces  is  that  China  has 
been  compelled  to  abandon  her  undi\i(led  sovtrei;jn  rights 
over  the  j)rovinces  of  Shantunif,  Fu-kien,  and  Soutlu  rn 
Manchuria.  All  rights  held  by  (iermany  in  Shantung,'  are 
thus  made  over  by  China  to  Japan. 

In  Southern  Manchuria  Japan  now  enjoys  an  alto^^ntlu  r 
privile<ifcd  j)ositi()n  ;  this  Chinese  province  may  henceforth 
be  regardt'd  as  wJupiincsc  Protectorate.  The  Ja])an(se  hnld 
the  right  to  own  land,  to  carry  on  industry  and  trade,  yet 
arc  not  obliged  to  ])ay  other  taxes  to  the  Chinese  authorities 
than  arc  approved  by  tlie  Japanese  consuls.  As  regards 
administration  of  justice,  China  agrees  to  aece|)t  .Japanese 
jurisdiction,  although  under  the  nominal  co-oi)eration  of 
the  Chinese  authorities. 

The  Imi)erial  Government  is  to  be  eonsullt-d  liefore 
advisers  or  instructors  are  apj)ointed  in  political,  tinaneial. 
and  military  matters. 

In  Eastern  Mongolia  .Japan  will  aKo  enjoy  cxlensi\e 
privileges.  '"  Joint  enterprise  "  between  Japanese  a!\d 
Chinese  is  permitted  in  the  domain  of  agriculture  and 
auxiliary  inchistries. 

The  central  administration  must  appnjut  intlueiitial 
Japanese  as  political,  financial,  and  niilildri/  advi'-'ers.  The 
Chinese  Government  shall  acknowU  dgt^  the  right  of  the 
Japanese  to  own  real  i)roj)erty  for  the  erection  (>(  Japiiucse 
hospitals,  temples,  and  schools  In  the  interior  of  China.      The 


810       Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

police  in  the  dibtrict?>  where  siieh  institutions  are  required 
sliall  he  phiced  uiuhr  joint  Japanese  and  Cliinese  eontrol, 
or  alternatively  Japanese  may  In-  appointetl  for  the  policing 
of  tjiese  distriets.  China  must  iinp(»rt  from  Japan  a 
certain  (piantity  of  arfiuniunl.s  or  mu^t  (  stal)lish  in  China 
an  (ir.sttutl  und»  r  joint  Japanese  and  Chinese  adminis- 
tration, the  materials  for  which  shall  he  furnished  from 
Japan. 

The  (  ininent  1'JiLjlish  eugenist  Ilavelock  Kllis  has  pttintid 
out  on  the  sid)j( ct  of  the  population  of  Japan,  on  tiie 
authority  of  that  country's  for(ni()st  ex|>ert.  Professor 
Tokano,  h<»w  colossal  is  the  infant  mortality  in  JajKin  in 
I'.HiT  no  less  than  'J.")-7  per  cent,  and  that  the  hirth-rate, 
which  in  1  ;»()■_'  was  hijjh,  IM)  jxr  thousand,  has  fallen  some- 
what in  the  last  decade.  This  (ItcliuiiiLl  hirtfi  ralr.  com- 
hiiied  with  the  risin<^  dtiitJi-nitf,  is.  if  this  tendincy  con- 
tiiiuis.  a  serious  problem  lor  Japans  social  reformers,  hut 
should  comfort  those  who  sjxak  in  I-'.urope  of  the  '"  yello\v 
peril  ""  fritm  Japan. 

l-"rom  C"hiiia,  for  the  same  reason,  there  is  little  cause 
to  f<ar  a  '"  yellow  p(  ril."  It  is  true  that  the  hirth  lale  is 
hiL'h.  hut  the  infant  mortality  is  cih  .riii' nis. 

I'rofessMr  !•'.  A.  H<iss,  wjio  knows  (  hina  wtll  and  hases 
his  tiLTures  oil  t  he  evi(l(  nc<-  of  t  hilt  \  t  hri  c  doctors  praet  isini,' 
in  that  country,  esfimat<s  that  out  of  t(  ii  chiMren  horn  in 
C  hina  tlir<  e  die  at  a  t<  iidi  r  a^'e.  and  prohaliK  ti\c  hesidi  s. 
Others  place  the  infant  iiiortalit\-  at  1U»  pt  r  c(  nt. 

l{e\ertiiiLr  to  th''  e<  ludil  ii  >iis  iii  (lur  own  coiit  iii«  lit .  we 
find  the  f.  iljowinu'  statistics  on  Kuinpi's  pnjiuldliini  : 

In  1  sTo      ....      ."lo.".  iiuiiious 
..    ISIK)       ....       y.lVA 

,.  r.ni     .  i:.j 

The   L'lowfh   from    l.s'.K)   f..    I'.tll    was   thus   ,s'.>   milli<»ns.   <>r 
l-'J  iiiiIIk  >ns  pi  r  annum. 

At  the  same  ratio  <>['  mereasi  the  pi  ijiulaf  it  >n  of  l'!urope 
^v..uM  amount  : 


What  Statistics  Teach  311 

In  1930  to  532  millions 
„   1940  to  '}7i 
,,   19r>0  to  01  (J 

One  shudders  at  tlicsc  liuurcs  and  at  the  tliou^^dit  of  what 
they  portend  not  wealth  or  pro^jx  lit y,  hut  (hre  (hsti<>s, 
starvation,  and  misery,  whieli  result  in  war,  which  a^'ain 
is  folh)wed  hy  demoralization  and  decay  of  all  ci\ili/,ation  I 
And  to  think  that  this  may  come  about  within  a  !'( w 
deca(h's  ! 

France  contrihutes  relalixcly  little  to  this  n-^rret  t  ahle 
state  of  thint,fs,  for  her  hirth  rale  has  ion*,'  since  heeii 
checked.      Her  j)Oj)ulation  amounted  : 

In  IS-Jl  to  30i  nnllions 
,,   ISTli  to  30 
,,   1911  to  39^ 

After  the  popnhition  for  a  lontr  series  of  years  jiad  shown 
11  hardly  pcrcej)tible  increase,  there  occurn-d,  for  the  lirst 
time  in  1911,  an  actual  diminution  ;  the  mnnl)er  of  hiiths 
was  in  that  year  7-i2,ll-i  and  of  deaths  770,083.  e(pial  to  a 
decrease  of  3 1,509. 

In  Russia  andCiermany,on  the  other  hand,  the  po])uIaf  it>u 
has  been  orowino-  stea(hly,  and  the  (juestion  naturally 
arisi's  whether  (Mtlier  of  these  countries  llurii)y  bccomt  s  a 
menace  to  the  world's  ))eace.     liu.s.si(i's  j)opulation  was  : 

In  1815  .           ,           .           .        1-5  millions 

,,   1807  .           .           .           .  71        ,, 

„   1897  ....  129       .. 

,,   1912  .           .           .           .  171        .. 

In  spite  of  the  enormous  (rrowth  of  Russia's  po])ulalion, 
"\ve  may  conclude  that  l"iUropc>  is  not  threatened  iiy  any 
westward  jiressure  on  the  part  of  the  l^ussian^.  I'or  they 
have  in  Siberia  a  colonizint!;  territory  \vhieli  it  ^vill  take 
very  lonix  to  till. 

During  the  three  huiuh'ed   years   ])reeedinir   189(;  there 


812       Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

emigrated  from  Russia  to  Siberia  about  3,000,000  persons, 
and  in  tiie  nine  years  iVi.ni  IS'JO  to  liK)j  about  1J60.000, 
wliilst  from  llKJo  to  ll>i;{  no  fi  wi  r  than  3,000,000  ihissian 
settlers  took  up  tluir  abode  in  that  provinee.  Thus  in 
eight  Years  as  many  Uus^ian  emi;,'raiits  Ikint  s(tth(l  in 
Siberia  as  in  the  ulioK-  of  the  three  hundred  yraiN  j)rret  tling 
l8U(j  I  ^Vlu•n  the  emigration  figures  ^\(.■re  at  th(  ir  highest, 
in  11M)S,  7")1», ()()()  emigrants  arrived  in  the  territories  east 
of  the-  L'ral  ;  in  reeent  years  the-  figure  has  l)een  fretm 
2'>(),()()()  to  ;{*_'"),()()().  It  was  more-  espeeially  after  the 
Hussian  IJoarel  of  Agriculture  had  instituteti  a  systematic 
distribution  and  ce)loni'/.atie)n  of  the  inmunse-  ste|)pe'  and 
forest  lands  in  \N'estern  Siberia,  and  in  the-  Anuu"  country 
on  the-  shores  of  the-  I'ae-itie-,  that  the-  e-mi<:rat ion  assuineil 
the-  colossal  dimensions  above-nie  ntie)ne-d. 

The-  Russian  (io\ernme-nt  is  now  speneliiiLj  e-onside  rable* 
sums  on  the-  e-reation  e)f  a  new  Russia  in  Sibe  ria,  anel  e-om- 
mittt  (  s  have-  been  forme  el  in  all  the-  ])ro\ince  s  wjiie-h  sujiply 
all  retjuisifc  information  and  assist  the-  emigrants. 

l'"ritliiof  Nansrii,  wiio  in  the  e-oursc  of  a  l'>ng  journ<  y 
through  Sib(  ria  in  1  IM.'J  took  e-are  I'ul  stock  of  t  hat  e-imiif  ry, 
reali/.f  el  that  it  j)resenteel  a  colossal  tielel  for  <  iniu'iaf  ii  )n  if 
certain  \ast  anei  fertile-  areas  were-  eultixatid  and  ri\tr 
navigation  were  introdue-ed.  In  his  opinion  Russia's 
t(  nel(  ne-y  towards  e-xpausion  is  now  elireeted  <  r/.s/avz/v/  in 
tin-  elircct  ion  of  her  e-oloiiy  of  Siberia.  His  obst  i-\  at  ions  are 
rt  e-ordrd  in  his  recent  1\'  jiubiisheel  book  (ijtinuni  Silnjiiti 
(■■  Throui:h  Sib(  lia  ""). 

As  re<_'ai-(ls  the-  bar  of  o\(  r  pi  i|  )ulat  ion  in  IJiissia,  it  is 
important  to  note  that.  althoUL'h  the  biifli  raf<-  is  \(  ry 
hi^,'h,  this  laetor  is  c-ount  erbaian(-(  d  by  the  enonndus 
morfalitv.  Ilavi  luck  \\\\\^  state  s  that,  alfhoiiLili  the  mtant 
mort  aht  \  in  Hu^-^ia  has  b(  (  n  ndiio  d  in  the  ei  mrsi  of  alioiit 
thirty  yais  from  :',\  to  'jti  per  eint.  (I.s'.tf,  I'.xki).  it  is 
ne\.  rfhejess  ;,'r<afer  than  in  any  ot  h<  r  j-jiropi  an  (•(•unfry. 
Statistics  show,  he  saN's,  that  out  of  IdOO  p(  isons  1.")  ni^re- 
di<-  in  l{ussia  than  in  I'!n;.'ianel.  which  is.  takiiii^  tin-  whole 
peoj.lr,  (  ipial  to  an  annual  l^ss  o|  1  ,t;;)0,()()()  h\  es. 


What  Statistics  Teach  818 

In  Germany,  wIrtc  tlio  population  alttr  the  ciul  of  the 
Thirty  Years  War,  about  the  niiddlr  of  the  scvrut  <•(  nt  h 
century,  had  dropjx-d  to  ahout  fjMOOJHfO,  th<  re  was  nx.iu 
duriui^  the  next  two  centuries  lor  a  eonsi(h  ial)Ie  iiieii  ase. 
Germany's  ^n-owtli  of  pojjulation  may  he  seen  I'roiu  the 
foIh)win<^  li^nu'es  : 

Popuhition  in  ]S2()  ....      Ii7  miUicnis 

1S71  .  .  .  .11 

ISIM)  ....      49i        „ 

191  t  .  .  .  .      OH  ,, 

For  many  years  Germany's  population  lias  been  ^rowing 
at  the  rate  of  al)out  <S(5(),()()()  per  anmmi,  or  ahout  1. 'J .*>(),()()() 
in  live  years  that  is,  S. 500.000  in  Im  i/cars.  Statistics 
show  that  the  increase  in  the  decade  11)04  I.'}  was  S. 302.000. 
Takini,'  this  increase  as  a  basis  for  an  approximate  eaieula- 
tion  of  future  growth,  we  lind  that  Germany's  [)oj)ulation 
will  amount 

In  20  years,  or  1931,  to  about   8.j  millions 
„    10  „        19.51  „  10-2 

„    00  „       1971  „  119 

„    80  „        1991  „  l.'iO 

In  other  words,  in  about  eighty  years  the  population  will 
be  doul)led. 

The  dann'cr,  within  but  a  few  cUcades.  of  u  real  over- 
poj)ulation  which  will  constituti-  a  menace  to  (iermany 
and  the  rest  of  the  world  alike,  is  ol)\i(ius.  One  eaimot 
concei\'e  how  Germany  will  be  able,  within  her  ])re>ent 
boun(hiries,  to  acconuno(hite  her  (calculated)  ])oj)ulatiou  in 
forty  years  from  now.  let  alone  in  sixty  or  eighty  years. 

In  all  countries  enjoying  an  advanced  civilization,  it  is 
now  becoming  general  for  marriicl  j)eo))le  to  riali/.e  the 
necessity  of  liiniliiiif  tJw  niunhrr  af  childrt  n  acciirding  to 
their  material  circumstances,  the  higher  cost  of  tclucation, 
of  study,  of  medical  care,  etc. 

That  the  French  have  given  this  aspect  their  considera- 
tion we  know,  for  in  that  count  rv  the  so-called  two-children 


314       Before,  Diking,  and  After  1914 

system  lias  long  been  j)c)j)ular  in  almost  all  classes  of  the 
coimmmity.  In  England,  too,  tiie  system  has  obtained  a 
great  vogur  among  the  inlightnu  il  miiklle-elasses  and  also 
in  an  inc-nasing  imaMirr  in  tin-  working  elassts. 

In  (i(  rmany,  \vli«  ic  tiir  ]to]»ulat itin  has  hitherto  gri)\vn 
with  such  appalling  rapidity,  and  win  ic  in  e<  rlain  eireles 
this  has  btcn  looked  njxm  with  sat islartion  as  ailding  to 
till-  military  stcurit\  of  the  country,  the  j)i(tph'  lia\'e 
n(\'«  rtlnlcss  bigun  of  late  to  hmit  the  inercast-  of  tluir 
familii  s.  Thus  I'roh  s^or  Max  I'h  sdi  (in  his  Prustitut'uin  u. 
FiuiucnkranJvlu  itt  IK  IM'S).  writes  as  follows  :  "  In  all  strata 
of  the  eommunity  it  is  dillieult  nowadays  to  bring  up 
a  large  family.  The  wonun  of  tlu-  j)o(irtr  classes  fear 
not  onI\'  the  aceouchem(  nt  but  also  the  domtstie  troubles 
brougjit  about  b\-  the  suspi nsidu  of  their  earnings  during 
pregiiancN'.  In  the  more  well  fodo  clas.ses  the  worrits  in 
eomiexion  with  the  eliildnns  tducation,  and  the  ti'oubles 
of  providing  for  t  heir  daughters  and  for  t  be  studi(  s  itf  their 
sons.  ha\e  less(  11.(1  till-  <h  siic  fur  larg'-  families. '" 

During  the  last  few  dcead<  s  many  |ibysiei;iiis  and  social 
reforuK  rs  )ia\c  conie  foiwaid  with  (inpliafic  warnings 
against  the  he.dh  ss  rate  of  re|iro(hiet  ion  in  (•(  rmany. 
inainK   witli  tin-  object  of  cIk  ckiiig  poscrtv  and  dist  asc. 

Dr.  .Ml  n->inga  ( l-'h  UNburg)  was  t  he  first  (  1  ss."))  to  w  rit  e  on 
tbis  subject  in  (i<rniaii\':  he  was  followid  by  Dr.  L. 
L(iw.  life  Id.  I'rofcssor  A.  lb  gar.  .\.  .Mryiihof  (wilting 
un<l(  r  tjii-  p>(  udonym  of  H.  !•"(  idy).  I'lof.  ssor  M.  (iruber, 
and  ot  III  i>.*  .\||  t  li(  sc  wilt  (Is  point  id  •  luf  I  h<  just  i  beat  ion 
(<^  the  lew  .Nbilt  liusiaiiisin  both  in  r«  gard  to  mairiage  and 
to  th<-  ])opiilat  loll  a^  a  whole,  and  thr  nici  ssity  of  cIk cking 
th''  rate  of  I  (product  loll,  m  (  ing  that  L:i\  in:,'  birth  to  too 
many  ehildri  n  oft(  n  .iff. ct  n  t  he  Im  alt  h  ot  t  he  niot  h.  r  and  t  he 
off>prin;j  ;    they,  tin  r.  toi<  ,  r<  coihiik  nd  tin    us.    of  pn  \i  n- 

♦  >' .■  C.  H;t-'  r1/' //s(/,:.'"i.  l'r'"i  ful.uHalin  M.ithlnl.  Iss.".  ; 
I..  l.oA.  i,f.  M.  S.  iiiiilhh.u  n,,,l  .\>  i:.  hi.  ,,!,  II.  Is'.'l;  A.  Il'-ar, 
/)■  I  (,,  l,!.<l,tslrnl>.  |s!i|;  II.  Im.!;..  I  In  M,lt,l  .-./  1.  ;7,  u'u/c' 
./.  /  (',,,.,  j,tinii  lsl».".  ;  .M.  (.iuIhi.  Jh/nnni  <!,  s  (,i  s,  l,li ,  htsl<  I'l  k.s, 
IIMI.",. 


What  Statistics  Teach  315 

live  niciisures  in  order  to  ulleviutc  distress  arnoiij,'  tlie 
lower  classes  and  reduce  the  mortality  ainoii^  infants,  etc. 

On  the  other  hand,  out  of  fear  of  a  reduced  birth  rate  or 
eventual  diminution  of  the  |)oj)ulation.  Hills  to  eomhat 
the  new  Malthusianism  have  at  frecjuent  intervals  heeti 
presented  to  Parliament  hoth  in  (iermany  and  in  l''rance. 
The  liill  introduced  hy  M.  (iauthier  in  the  French  Chamher 
in  1{)()1>  was  prefaced  hy  the  j)leathat  "  if  the  populati(»n  is 
still  further  reduced,  we  shall  not  he  able  to  till  the  cadres 
of  the  Army  or  to  meet  the  recjuirt-ments  of  our  interna- 
tional industry."  In  Ciermany  Profissor  I'leseli  criticized 
the  movement  very  thorout,dily  in  the  periodical  Sr.rual- 
ProhU'inc  (1010),  and  pointed  out  that  it  would  militate 
against  the  j)oorer  classes  "  if  they  wen-  to  do  what  is 
customary  amonirst  tlu-  upjxr  classes."  He  also  showt d 
that,  alth()U<:[h  Ciermanys  po))ulation  has  inereastd  so 
enormously  (by  8G2.()()0  in  1005), the shortan;e  of  af,nieultural 
labour  is  nowhere  so  severely  felt,  and  that  the  most 
important  work  can  often  only  l)e  cojx d  with  by  the  aid 
of  forei<jners,  instancing  the  employment  of  Italians  on 
the  railways  and  of  Poles  in  the  mines,  and  he  j)ointe(l  out 
that  most  of  the  men  found  imlit  for  military  service 
belong  to  the  towns  and  industrial  conununities. 

\Vhen  the  ImjxM'ial  (ierman  (iovernment  in  r.M  1  intro- 
duced a  ]Jill  in  the  Reichstag  for  legislation  against  Xcw 
Malthusian  practices.  Dr.  Max  Marcuse  Mrote  an  exlKUistive 
])rotest  in  Scxual-Prohlonc  (1011).  He  ])ointed  out  that 
'"  whilst  in  Ciermany,  as  in  all  Western  Statt-s,  the  rate  of 
ri'i)roductit)n  amongst  the  u|)i)er  classt's  is  relatively  low, 
large  families  are  the  rule  in  the  Avorking-class  communities. 
The  (conomic  and  sexual  misery  in  our  jU'oKtariat  is  in 
a  large  measure  traceable  to  the  fact  that  they  do  not 
sulliciently  resort  to  the  new  Malthusian  nutliods.  There 
arc  condiiions  icJiicJi  arc  slroni^cr  than  all  hr^s,  and  il'  the 
Reichstag  were  to  pass  this  Bill,  the  new  law  would  (piite 
certainly  be  found  inadecpiate  for  attaining  the  real  object 
aimed  at,  namely,  the  raising  of  the  birth-i-ate." 

Marcuse  qut)ted  one  of  the  fori'uiost  German  population 


816        Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

politicians,  G.  lliiintlin,  >vlu)  has  declared  that  "  if  Germany 
continues  yearly  to  add  800,000  to  IKJO.OOO  souls  to  her 
population,  she  tnu.st  imritiibltj  seek  <ni  uitr.scds  Lipansion 
of  ht-r  territory,  which  Kii^jiaml  ni<>re  ispreially  cdiinot 
admit.  And  in  that  ease,  in  a  n(»t  tno  distant  future, 
Germanys  inenasi-d  p(>i)ulati«)n  must  had  t(j  the  (ntr- 
Jluiiin<i  (if  our  boutularits." 

When  the  (piestion  of  the  diminished  German  birth-rate 
was  before  the  Prussian  Lower  House  in  April  IIU.'},  Dr. 
Mu;,'dan  refuted  the  contention  that  it  was  due  totleeadenee 
and  showetl  that  such  dimimition  is  more  often  due  to  a 
stricter  conception  of  the  dulits  af  i>arfntli(nj(l,  pointint^  out 
at  the  same  time  that  it  is  an  international  phenomenon. 

This  sul)jeet  is  diseussetl  e\iry  year  in  many  well-known 
journals,  more  (specially  Sciual  Problt  ntr,  editi-d  l)y  Dr. 
.Max  .Mareuse  (IJerlin),  and  Die  ncue  Cifmratioiu  edited 
by  Dr.  llel( He  .StiK'lur  (Herliii).  Moreovt  r.  a  society 
has  recently  been  formed  with  the  title  "  Ci»s(  IKeliaft 
zur  Hekiimjifuiii,'  der  rberl)e\(")lk(  run^  Dt  utsehlamls  " 
(■■.Society  for  C'oiiibatiii^f  (i(  riiiaiiy"s  ()\(T  populat  ii>ii  '"), 
with  Dr.  1"'.  (ioldstein  (Heilin)  as  prtsidcnt.  The  birth 
question.  ■"  birth  juilitics,"'  etc.,  have  during'  the  last  two 
years  en;,M<,M<i  t  he  at  I  elit  ioii  of  a  Soeiet  \-  for  t  he  Protection 
of  .Motlu  rs  (•■  D<  utselier  Jiuud  fiir  Mutterschut/,  ""). 

It  should  be  m<  iiti')ne<l  that  durini:  the  ^'reat  IIy<,uenie 
Kxhibition  at  I)r<  sdeu  in  I'.Hl  the  seieiititic  aii<l  sneial 
coii;,fr(  sses  h<  id  tlnre  iiiclu(l((l  an  international  "New 
.Malthusian  ('< )nL,M"(^s  ""  (.Sej)teniber  '_' 1  -7),  at  which,  be- 
sidi  s  the  (lthb(raliMns  in  pri\ate.  ])ul»lie  addri  sses  \vere 
^i\<-n  wliieji  arou^id  the  jjreatcst  interest.  Profi  ssor  K. 
\\  lekscll  ;ja\c  some  \  <  iv  \aluable  1<  ctur*  s  in  the  cmrse  of 
which  he  utti-red  \\arnin;4s  .'mainst  (it  rnian  over  pojuilat  i«in, 
and  I  also  cont  ribut(  d  pap(  rs  to  tin-  transactions  of  the 
C'on;^'ress. 

The  will  and  iiM.Jution  to  (scape  poverty  and  to  live  in 
circuni  stances  wort  hv  of  human  ci\ili/.at  ion  ha\'e  for  many 
}-ears  indued  numberless  famihis  of  all  i-lasses,  esp(  fially 


Germany's  Over-population  a  Menace   317 

in  the  towns,  to  keep  the  number  of  ehildrc  n  wit  hin  eertain 
bounds,  and  statist ies  show  that  Germany  has  also  ex- 
perienced an  a])prceiable  ditninution  nf  the  birth  rdfc. 

Tliis  result  ouf^lit  not  to  worry  (Jermany.  Statistics 
have  shown  that  a  reduced  birth-rate  is  now  experienced 
in  all  European  countries  and  also  in  all  civilized  States 
outside  Europe.  Rumania  alone  shows  an  increase.  In 
the  German  Empire  the  yearly  birth-rate  per  1(),()()() 
inhabitants  has  been  as  follows  : 

During  the  decade 


1S71    1880. 

.      .'JOl 

1001. 

.      -MV.) 

1910. 

.      .-{OT 

1011. 

.      20.-) 

This,  it  is  true,  shows  a  diminution  of  .')(*>.()()()  in  the 
number  of  births  in  1011.  But  it  does  not  convey  l)y  any 
means  that  an  actual  decrease  in  the  frrowth  of  i)()j)ulation 
has  taken  place.  On  the  contrary,  it  has  for  many  years 
been  enormous  and  practically  constant.  In  the  (ierman 
Em]^ire.'38,.'}0.3  fewer  children  were  born  in  1900  than  in  1008  ; 
yet  the  increase  of  population  was  about  the  same  as  before, 
or  884,001 .     In  100-1  it  was  8G'2,<)(M.. 

This  is  cxjilaincd  by  the  considerable  reduction  of  the 
death-rate,  this  reduction  exceeding  that  of  the  i)irth-rate. 
Thus  the  number  of  deaths  per  10,000  inhabitants  has  been 
as  follows  : 

In  1870       ....      200  deaths 
,,    1800       .  .  .  .      2.'iO       ,. 

„    1010        .  .  .  .      171       „ 

The  danger  of  over-population  in  Germany  has  become 
particularly  menacing  for  the  reason  that  the  emifiration, 
which  formerly  was  very  considerable,  has  in  the  last 
twenty  years  dwindled  to  comparatively  small  dimensions 
owincf  to  the  colossal  economic  advance  which  has  given 
opportunities  of  profit  to  the  workers. 

The  overseas  emigration  from  Germany  amoimted  in 
l8,Sl-00  to  an  averacje  of  130.000  and  fell  in  1S03  to  87.000  ; 


818        Before,  During,  and  After  1014 

in  1S91  there  was  a  still  further  drop  to  roughly     40,CC0 
The  average  lias  siuec  been  as  fi)ll()\vs  : 

IIMH    :>         .  .  .      1".>,:U)S  aunually 

r.Mi  .  .     •JL*,.')'j'j 

101-.'  IS. 11.-) 

rji;j  .         .        .     i'.'..77.-) 

The  conditions  lor  emigration  not  being  favourable 
everywhere  owing  to  inahiiuate  opportunities  for  eariung 
a  li\(liliood.  ininiigrat  ion  jirohibit  i<ins.  etc..  Cierniany  nni^t 
have-  .•<uilahlf  colDiiits,  which,  more<i\"er.  aw  needed  for  the 
count  rvs  trade  and  for  t  he  export  of  its  indust  rial  produets 
and  tiie  import  of  raw  materials,  ( te. 

(i(  rmany.  with  her  sixty-eight  millions,  has  now  clearly 
reachrd  the  practicable  maximum  of  jxtpulation  if  she 
is  to  harbour  a  prosperous  and  c<inteiited  j)eo|)le  ;  and 
Vet.  (  \»-n  now.  a  c  rtain  part  of  hei'  p((>j)le  ha\c  to  seek 
their  sust- nance  outside  the  countr\"s  boundaries  or  in 
its  col(  lilies. 

The  stujxiidous  growth  of  (Germany's  jx.pulatiou 
linallv,  at  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  ctiitui\'.  \id 
to  (>:  (rcroiidiuLl  in  nuintf  trmlrs.  Dr.  (ioldsttin.  in  a 
Dtnkschrlfl  jiubliNlud  in  1!»11  on  the  subji ct  of  o\«  r- 
populatioii.  pointed  <.ut  that  doctors.  l;i\v\(is.  (  iiijineers. 
musiei;iiis.  paiutci's,  sculptors,  siu^r,  j-s,  aud  actors  all 
eoiuplaincd  o|'  o\'(  rci  <  iwdmg  in  tlpii-  professi.  .us.  .Shop 
assistants  aic  alsd  t.ni  uuiuci-.  mi--,  .iiid  m;in\"  small  shcip 
k'<  pcrs  coiujdain  of  poor  trad<-.  wJuUt  liaiidieraft  s  .arc  also 
goinu'  back. 

It  is  true  that  at  that  tim<  tin-  demand  foi-  labour  in 
the  biu  iiidustiies  was  \  ei\-  L'r.,it.  yet  iuan\"  nun  w<r<' 
often  out  of  work  <>  to  s  per  cent,  of  the  trade muon 
members  in  r.H)  I  l!>(iT  andml'.M)S  1 '.m»I)  t  he  unein|)loyed 
amounted  to  1  (»  jxr  cent . 

.Subs((pient ly  unemployuHiit  among  industrial  workers 
serins  to  ha\'c  ^rown  still  more  and  to  ha\'c  menaced  the 
existtiu'c  of  many  tlious.ands,  and   the  probleni   has  bc(  n 


Germany's  Ovkr-population  a  Mhnac  i:    319 

the  sul)j('('t  of  cariK'st  discussioii  in  the  widest  circles. 
In  SoptcriilxT  11)1. "J  the  (luestioii  of  tineinployiiient  \v;is 
dealt  with  exhaustively  I)y  the  Social  Democratic  Conf^'rcss 
in  Berlin.  All  the  s|)eakers  drew  attention  to  the  appallint^ 
increase  of  unemployment,  which  the  coming'  winter  was 
l)ound  to  intensify.  It  was  deemed  ahsohitely  necessary 
that  the  Fim|)ire,  the  States  of  the  Confederation  as  W(  11 
as  tiie  local  communes,  should  do  somethinLT  to  lessen  the 
unemployment. 

During  the  taxation  debate  a  resolution  was  adopted 
dcmandin*,'  that  those  otit  of  work  shoidd,  as  far  as  pnssihle, 
be  exempted  from  all  taxation. 

The  n^hieed  birth-rate  has,  esjX'cially  with  the  example 
of  France  before  them,  created  eonsideral)le  anxiety 
ani()n<xst  the  (iernians,  particularly  amon(r  those  who 
consider  that  the  jKiramount  need  of  the  State  is  a  con- 
tinual increase  of  military  recruit in<^  material. 

Brentano,  writintr  in  1900,  sounded  a  warning,'  a<,fainst 
this  damper  in  an  article  in  Ji  review,  and  he  was  followed 
in  1 91 1  by  Oldenbin-of,  who  wrote  a  treatise  on  Der  ]iiiek<^(in<< 
der  Geburten,  recorded  in  the  Archiv  fiir  Soziahuis.sen- 
schaft. 

The  Em))eror  William  took  a  ])eeuliar  stej)  intciuhxl  to 
stinndate  the  l)irth-rate,  and  which  was  announced  in  the 
newsjiapers  in  October  1909  in  the  followinn;  terms  : 
"  Notice  is  oiven  by  circular  from  the  Home  Otliee  that 
the  Km])eror  is  willing  for  the  future  to  be  iiodjather  lo  the 
eighth  child  in  every  German  family,  whether  rich  or 
poor." 

Another  eireular  emjiowered  the  authorities  to  j->ay  a 
State  bounty  of  sixty  tnarks  to  fa)nilies  in  poor  circufn^tdnees 
on  the  birth  of  the  eighth  child.  "The  Emjxn-or  hopes  by 
this  means  to  assist  to  bring  about  an  increast^  oi  the 
German  birth-rate,  which  plays  an  important  part  in  the 
strengthening  of  German  military  pozicr.  Recent  years 
have  shown  signs  of  a  diminution  in  the  jiereeiitage  of 
births,  a  circumstance  which  not  only  the  Eniperor.  but 


320       Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

many  eminent  statesmen  besides,  repard  as  a  graze  national 
danger.'' 

What  luvs  hetn  the  result  of  tliis  Imjnrial  deeision  ? 
Doulitless  it  has  been  very  disaj)j)()intin<;,  for  there  eannot 
be  many  Cierman  {larents  who,  with  seven  ehildren.  are 
anxious  tt)  add  an  ei^dith  f«>r  tlie  sake  of  thi-  above  reward. 
To  most  of  them  seven  ehildren  have  been  a  sullieient 
souree  of  trouble. 

That  this  an\i(ty  ref,'ardin^'  a  rcdueed  birth-rate  is 
iinfoiuuh  tl  may  be  ^'athered  from  what  I  have  said  al)ove. 

Siuee  the  war  broke  out,  and  in  eonnexion  with  it, 
Ilerr  Seelmann,  insuranee  aetuary  (Oldenburg),  has  dealt 
with  the  subjeet  of  the  rechieed  Cierman  birth-rate  in  an 
artiele  in  the  Berliner  Bihsen  Courier  (January  10.  IDl.')) 
in  which  he  sounded  a  note  of  warning  .and  hopetl  tiiat 
something  would   be  dune  to  eounteraet   it. 

"  Amon*,'  the  i)ltssiutrs  which  will  follow  upon  the  war, 
I  count."'  he  says.  "  the  circumstance  that  the  bulk  of 
the  population  will  take  a  more  intelligent  interest  than 
liitherto  in  a  factor  which  in  tiini'  to  conic  will  exercise 
a  dccisivi-  inlhu  iicc  on  (iernianys  fortunes,  the  hi\eered 
birthrdte.  .  .  .  .Shall  we  really,  after  we  have  sixiit.  so 
to  speak,  our  last  drop  of  blocid  in  ^afe^niardint;  our  (  xist- 
ence.  announce  our  :i ///  lo  emntnil  siiiriile  ?  For  if  the 
preseiU  tendency  continues.  (Germany  will  have  to  fat'c 
the  daiif^er  of  ending  in  niilional  suicide.  " 

Seelmann  admits.  howcNcr.  that  (Germany's  |-)opulation 
poes  on  t,frowin^'.  and  is  df  opinion  that  it  will  continue 
to  do  so  for  a  few  d( cadi  s  to  com<-.  Hut  he  has  fears 
for  th<-  future  and  is  .afraid  that  if  the  birth  rate  j/oes  on 
diminishini:.  and  the  t  wo  cjiildren  system  i'^  piner.ally 
adopted,  (ierniany  will  by  th*-  end  of  this  century  be 
rcducf-d  below  the  le\-e|  of  l-"rance.  He  therefore  con- 
siders that  "at  the  end  of  the  war  one  of  the  foremost 
tasks  to  j,'rapi)le  with  will  be  to  introduce  counter-measures 
in  this  connexion." 

Pr.  (f.  ssor  A.  Selilossiiiann  has  also  dealt  wit  h  t  lie  rpiest  ion 


Germany's  Over- population  a  Menace    321 

of  the  diminished  (icnnaii  hirth-nitc  and  its  c;ms(  s,  hut 
finds  himself  fuct-  to  face  with  an  insolvahlc  (hi* mma, 
being  confronted  on  tlie  one  liand  witli  what  he  rcf^'ards 
as  tlic  interest  of  tlie  State,  and  on  the  other  with  the 
j)riv'ate  citizen's  motives  for  hmiting  liis  family.  Ih-  is 
anxious  tluit  the  e(hieated  classes  should  set  a  good  example 
in  this  respect  and  realize  that  the  eountrys  (cononiic 
condition  and  political  situation  demand  ahsolutely  a 
continued  incrctisc  of  the  populolion.  He  |»oints  out  how 
Germany  in  the  last  few  decades  has  develop* d  from  an 
agricultural  into  an  industrial  country,  and  remarks  that 
"  for  the  sake  of  our  future  we  must  remain  a  '^nncinf^ 
people.'" 

Whilst  maintaining  that  "the  interests  of  the  State 
need  an  increased  poj)ulation,  taxpayers,  soldi*  rs,  worktrs 
—  the  more,  the  better  for  the  State,""  he  j)oiiits  *)ut  that 
"  to  the  })rivate  individual  few  children  are  an  advantag*-, 
whilst  a  large  family  nowadays  spells  ruin."  "  Ibre."' 
he  exclaims,  ''  we  reach  an  impasse,""  and  ])roe* cds  to 
put  the  pertinent  (juestion  :  '"  Can  wv  ask  of  the  private 
citizen  that  he,  individually,  shall  make  saerilic-es  lor  the 
good  of  the  State  and  take  upon  himself  all  the  \vorri*s 
of  providing  for  the  country"s  needs  ?  ""  "  To  the  l)r*ad- 
winner  every  child  means  added  worries. '"  * 

Dr.  Julian  ]\bircuse,  in  his  work  on  Die  Ii( seliriinliUn^ 
cler  GehurlenziiJd — ein  KuUurprohleni  (11)1.'5).  takes  u|)  arms 
against  those  wlu)  voice  tlie  opinion  that  a  redueitl  birth- 
rate is  a  sign  of  national  (h'cadence  or  a  ""  discus* d  State 
organization,"'  and  regards  it  as  a  phenomenon  du*'  to 
the  interplay  of  a  numl)er  of  factors  of  our  modern  ei\  ili/.a- 
tion.  AmcMigst  other  reasons  he  jioints  to  th*'  inei-eascd 
practical  activity  of  women  and  the  height eiu-d  fe*ling 
of  responsibility  amongst  jiarents  who  s**k  to  gi\'e  tlu  ir 
children  a  better  ti'aining  for  suital)le  oeeupat ions.  avIio 
are  anxious  to  promote  their  health  and  striimtii,  etc. 

In  a  remarkable  work  entitli'd  Fruehtdhlri  ihuim  iind 
Priiventivverkelir    i)>i    Zusanune)i}uinii    mil    deni    Utburten- 

*  See  Sc.vudl-Probhnw,  1911.  i».  IWel. 

X 


322        Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

ruckgang  (19U)  Dr.  Max  Iliisch  (Berlin)  makes  tlie  fol- 
lowiiii^  statiiiunt  :  "  L'lulovihttdly  preventive  intercourse 
is  tlie  chief  cause  of  tlie  lowi-r  birth-rate.  Its  enormous 
spread  is  patent.  .  .  .  The  iliUbrratf  limitation  of  the 
number  nf  cftHdnn  is  attrihutahh-  to  the  experience  tliat 
the  tcomniiic  ictlfare  of  the  f<imili/  and  the  maintenance  of 
the  ch  1,'ree  of  comfort  indispensaltle  for  tlie  liealth  of  the 
family  and  the  echication  of  the  children  an-  only  possible 
by  previntin^f  too  numerous  a  pro;,'eny. 

■■  This  viiw  and  this  feelinj,'  of  responsibility  an-  sifjns 
of  an  (idxiineed  eii  ilization  ami  presuppose  a  certain  measure 
of  moral  maturity,  sj)iritual  culture,  and  enli^jhtinment 
in  j»hvsical  science. 

"  Under  modern  conditions  the  limitation  of  profjjeny 
is  a  \veai)on  in  the  economic  strufj^'le.  an  act  of  self-j)ro- 
teetion.'" 

H(  sides  preventive  inttrcourse.  the  measures  taken  to 
procure  al)ortion  are  in  Ilirschs  ((j)inion  a  <,'en(  ral  con- 
tributorv  cause  of  the  reduced  j)iifh  rate  in  (iermany,  and 
he  has  found  that  whilst  the  former  method  is  more  in 
vo^me  amoni,'  the  uj)j)er  classes,  the  latter  j)revails  amonj^ 
the  masses. 

This  limitation  in  the  numlx  r  of  ehildn  ii  reveals, 
aeeor(lin<4  to  Ilirseh.  a  |)ariiital  /(/;e///'/(/^///  towards  the 
pro;j(  ii\-.  and  is  a  sii^'n  ol  t  he  sprtdd  nj  tuUure. 

Ilir^eh  aKo  points  out  that  the  measures  taken  to 
j)roeui-e  alxirtion  (usually  duiin^,'  the  \'ery  lirst  months) 
ail-  dis(Uss(  (1  with  jk  rfi  ct  frankness  amongst  th<'  marri(  d 
worn.  II.  who  ol'tiii  ad\isc  om-  anotlur  on  the  subjict, 
and  t  li.it  t  hr  pid\  isions  of  the  law  do  not  t  \(  reisc  a  d(  ter- 
r<  nt  «  ff.cf.  Such  ar<-  the  horror  and  fear  of  iliuesN  and 
(list  r(  s-^. 

.Man\'  otli'i-  (|(  rniaii  doctor^.  Dr.  A.  Hirnstrin,  Dr. 
Mos.  s.  Dr.  Max  Mareusc,  .arid  otli(is.  ha\c  (  xpresscd 
t  h'liisi  1\(  s  to  the  same  rffcct  as  a  i-(stilt  of  th<  ir  p(  rsoiial 
ob-.  r\  at  ioii^  .amoiiL:  th''  Nvoikinu'  (■Iass(  s  of  IJcrhn.* 

.\     Social     Democratic     autlioi-.     .loh.     I'l  reh.     has     also 
•    .S<  t    S(  iiial-I'ri)hl) mt ,   KM:!,  ]•[>.  T.'JIi  aiul  7.')"J. 


Germany's  Over-population  a  Menace   323 

recently  drawn  attention  to  the  iniproitd  ((lucdtion  of  tlu- 
rc»rkinfi  classes,  wliicli  lie  considers  the  leadin;^'  factor 
in  their  now  more  |feneral  limitation  of  faniilits.  '"To  a 
thinkint^  workman  a  thinking,'  wife  must  he  an  iiidispen- 
sahlc  necessity,"  and  consecjiiently  the  workiii;,'  class  are 
cryini;  out  aloud  for  the  cuiaiieij)at  iou  of  WMmrn  aud 
men  from  the  crushiuif  ceouoiuie  witirics  and  for  u  f« w 
leisure  hours  for  intellectual  reenation.  lu  workin;,'- 
class  homes  the  idea  is  now  ;/ainiu^'  ground  that  this  <,'oal 
can  he  reached  by  liuiitiunr  the  mnuixi'  of  chiidri  ii.* 

This  ])reoecu|)at  ion  as  to  the  liuiitatiou  of  families  now 
cnfrajTcs  the  attention  of  all  classes  of  (icruiau  society, 
and  according  to  Max  Mareuse  it  has,  in  recent  y(  ars, 
increasinfrly  nuinilV-stcd  itself  amon^^  tiie  workiui,'  classes, 
csjH'cially  in  tiie  hiuf  towns.  In  this  mattii-,  how(  \(r.  the 
leaders  of  the  Social  Democrats  are  by  no  means  united, 
and  some  -that  is  to  say,  those  who  rej)risent  the  older 
revolutionary  standpoint,  that  of  class  feuds  do  not 
wish  to  sec  any  improvement  in  the  condition  of  the 
workinjT  classes  imtil  they  themselves  ha\'e  created  a  m  w 
era  after  overthrowing  the  jirestnt  foundations  of  society. 
This  view  was  brought  to  lioht  more  especially  at  tw(j 
lar<^c  Social  Democratic  Couifresses  held  at  IJerlin  in 
Aufjnst  1913, f  when  Frau  Klara  Zetkin  (StuttLrart)  spoke 
against  "birth  strikes"  and  accused  the  New  Malthusian 
Soci;d  Democrats,  the  Revisionists,  of  \vhat  practically 
amounts  to  treason  against  the  caust'  of  the  working  class. 
^Vorkmen  who  limit  the  number  of  tluir  children  to  one 
or  two,  she  said,  were  simply  aping  the  boui'geoisie.  and 
the  business  of  the  working  class  was  not  to  let  the  indi- 
vidual try  to  imj)rovc  his  conditions  of  life  on  the  lines 
of  the  bourgeoisie,  but  to  carrij  on  the  class  struii'j,le.  The 
working  class  must  not  forget  that  numbers  are  a  deeisi\t- 
factor  in  the  fight  for  freedom.  If  we  liave  fewer  eliihlien. 
she  contended,  this  means  that  the  working-class  families 
will  breed  fewer  soldiers  for  the  revolution. 

*  See  Sertod-Prnhhinc.  KM  I,  \^.  r.."  1. 

t  Sic  report  in  Scviuil-Pn/blnne,  liti:i.  ji.  T'JS. 


824        Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

The  majority  of  those  \vho  attciultd  tlic  Coiiprcss 
sliowcd  uniiiistakal)ly  that  they  did  iu)t  shart-  Fran 
Zttkin's  point  of  vitw,  and  two  doctors  lulon^in^'  to  the 
Revisionists  of  tlu-  Social  I)i  inocratic-  Party,  Dr.  lirrnsti  in 
and  Dr.  Mos(  s,  s(  t  forth  tlu-  caiisrs  which  j)riinarily 
determine  the  reduei  <1  hirth  rate  :  dt  t(  riorati d  lualth 
and  iihuNses  amonj^'st  mothers,  of  which  tuhcrcnlosis  is 
the  chief,  the  j^Tcat  infant  mortality  in  workin^'cla'^s 
homes,  the  poverty  which  often  drives  the  daw<,'hters  to 
prostitution,  the  housin<^  dillicidty,  the  procnrin*;  of 
abortion  univ<rsally  practised  by  poor  motlurs.  etc. 
Tluy  j)ointitl  out.  moreover,  that  Social  Democratic 
workmen  now  very  generally  limit  the  number  etf  children 
in  their  families. 

German  chauvinists  luue-  long  re'garded  the  colossal 
prenvth  of  (iernianys  ])o|)ulati(»n  as  a  gratifying  pheno- 
menon, something  jiart  ieularly  me  litoiious,  whie'h  jtoints 
to  fibre'  and  \itality  in  a  nation  eltstiniel  to  rule  over 
others  whie-h  elo  not   augment    in  the  same  proportion. 

Hut  this  is  ehnionst  ral)ly  not  due-  to  eh  tieicnt  \itality, 
but  to  d(  liberate  limitation  of  rcproeiue-t  ion  brotight  almut 
bv  a  growing  sense  of  resjxinsibilit  \  towards  the  jtrogeiiy 
e>r  the-  wish  to  ese-ape-  j)o\<rty  by  not  ha\ing  too  many 
children  to  |)ro\idc  for. 

Is  if  rcalK'  trtic  that  a  largi-  jiopulalion  means  greatness 
and  sti-<iigth  for  all  time?  No  elonht  this  factor  is  of 
grt  at  import  ane-(-  when  war  is  waLT'd  Nsith  less  jiopulous 
countrii  s.  ]Ui\  this  numi  rie-al  infi  liorit  \-  e-an  b<-  e-ounter- 
balane-ed  lt\"  (iIIkuki  s,  as  s(  ( n  j(\-  I-"iane<  "s  alliance-  with 
Russia  :iiid   (iriat    Britain    in   tin-   pr<  si  nt    war. 

In  till  I' mil  run  tin  uikIk  eki  el  inci-i  a^c  ot  its  populat  ion 
must  undoubtidly  imniiu  a  tlntiilir  la  a  thitiioi  as  w(  II  as 
to  till    Xinrld's  ])ini  I  . 

(i(  rm:in\'  s  rinlittiii/  ituil  colnuuil  jxilii  1/  has  bi  (  n  fiMuieh  el 
(>i\  t  lie  e-aleulat  ion  t  liat  Ik  r  <  noi-mous  i;ro\\  t  h  of  populat  ion 
will  coiitimK-.  Rut  a  jio|i(\  has.  <!  on  th<sr  pri  iiiis(-s,  aiiei 
which  jircsujijtoses  a  e-ertain  future  ine-re  ase-  of  jx  ipulat  ion, 


Germany's  Over- population  a  Menace    325 

must  also  reckon  with  the  possibihty  of  world-wide 
conllicts. 

In  Germany,  as  we  have  seen,  many  thinkers  have  warn*  d 
the  nation  a<,'ainst  this  eventuality,  though  iu  vain. 

I  have  pointed  out  in  the  fore<,'()in<,'(j)j).  131-142)  how  the 
huge  growth  of  Germany's  })o|)u!ation  has  been  oiu-  of  the 
reasons  of  her  eolonial  poliey,  which  in  turn  lias  become 
one  of  the  j)redisp()siiig  causes  of  the  War  of  KM  i.  The 
eminent  political  economist  (i.  Sehmoller  disj)ut( d  in  1  s,S*j 
the  old  dogma  as  to  the  blessing  of  the  greatest  j)ossible 
number  of  children,  and  considered  that  it  belonged 
rightly  to  a  semi-civilized  age  ;  but  in  the  end  he  had  to 
take  the  line  of  least  resistance,  and  declared  in  1  !>()()  that 
Germany's  existence  would  be  threatened  if  she  were  not 
a  Power  to  l)c  reckoned  with  at  sea. 

In  view  of  the  colossal  growth  of  the  German  nation 
and  the  poliey  of  exjiansion  to  wiiieh  it  has  given  rise,  it 
n\ay  nt)t  be  out  of  place  to  remind  the  reader  that  the 
dissemination  of  the  nations,  and  not  least  of  the  Germanic 
peoples,  was  mostly  due,  in  earlier  stages,  to  the  same 
cause.  The  home  country  became  over-populated,  and  it 
grew  dillicult  for  many  to  supjiort  themselves  and  tind 
room  at  home,  resulting  in  a  periodical  exodus  either  to 
iminhabited  regions  in  the  earlier  j)eriods  or  to  richer 
countries,  when  war  often  resulted  between  their  inhabi- 
tants and  the  invaders. 

The  struggle  for  existence  has  often  made  war  a  "  hiolo- 
f^ical  necessity,''  as  Bernhardi  says,  but  this  law  ai)|)lies 
to  the  more  ])riiuitive  stages,  to  savages  and  bari)arians, 
just  as  it  applies  to  certain  animals.* 

*  I  iiuiv  instance  the  Xorwej^nan  leininiiii:.  a  nidiiif.  \vlii(h 
poridflieally  ini<:ratos  in  immense  nnmbers  rii:ht  acrci-s  S\\((]iii. 
ultimately  to  drown  in  the  waters  of  the  (Julf  of  l?othnia.  TIksc 
animals  are  comjKlIed  to  undertake  these  miirratiuns  tliruui:li  iai  k 
of  food  when,  owinjj:  to  their  eolos^-al  firtility.  tluy  htcfnie  too 
numert)us. 

Another  example  from  the  animal  world  i^  siijiplied  by  the  rahhits 
in  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  whose  ftrtility  ha--  made  th«m  a 
positive  plague.      Kverythinii  edible  is  ct)n--umed  by  these  millions 


326        Before,  During,  and  After  1914- 

C'ivili/.rd  nations  ou^lit  no  longtr  to  permit  unrcf^ulated, 
irrcsjMinsihK'  propatjation. 

Tlic  t)\ «  r-popiilation  of  Girniany  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  ov(  r\vh(  hninj,'  majority  have  needlessly  fjone  on 
breeding,'  children,  and  this  in  its  turn  has  been  a  cdusd 
runoia  of  the  war.  If  the  njiroduetion  continues  on  the 
same  scale  as  heretofore,  it  will  bieome  a  ciiusd  proxinui, 
the  dirtc't  and  immediate  cause  of  a  new  war.  Over- 
population becomes  a  cdUfid  rjficiffis,  or  a  mechanically 
actini,f  cause  of  war  in  the  animal  world,  but  to  the  (Germans, 
who  do  not  realize  that  they  are  not  entitled  to  such  sexmd 
life  in  the  heart  of  l^vn'opi-,  it  becomes  a  cadsd  ju.sUi,  for 
tht  y  hold  that  they  have  a  ri;,'ht  to  anything';  unfor- 
tunately, thert  for<-,  it  becomes  an  omilKtus  cdiisd  justd 
litiiidiuli  that  is  to  say.  they  will  re^^ard  the  stru^jtjle  for 
and  claim  to  more  and  mt)rc  t(  rritory  to  be  fully  justified, 
as  b(  iuLT  a  n(C(  ssity  tutlitfn  Tiny  must,  they  say.  stru^';,de 
for  tht  ir  (xisttnee,  and  ha\ c  as  nnich  ri^ht  to  li\e  as 
oth(  rs. 

'J'liat  may  be  but  only  as  rational  beinijs  Avho  will  not 
sj)oil  life  for  themselves  and  others  by  Ihow^ltlUs.sut  ss  and 
Idcl:  of  Jorrsl^ht  ! 

I't  >■(  stirc  c.sf  j)ir  (V///.S7/.S'  scire  "  To  understand  ri'jhtly 
is  to  und(  rstand  throu^di  causes  ""  saiel  l-'rane'is  IJae-on 
three  hunelre  el  years  ai,'e». 

A  ^'lane'e  at  the'  statistics  of  the  stupenelous  t^rowth  of 
(ierman\"s  po|)ulation  sjiows  us  that  it  was  one  nj  tin- 
cdKsts  (if  (Iw  U'nrld  War.  for  it  L-MVc  rise  to  the  e-oli>nial 
pi>he\,  which  <_'a\"i-  tlie  imp(  tus  to  (Germany's  ll((  t,  whie-h 
in  turn  made  (iirat  JJiitain  apprili<  nsi\c  of  (J(  inian  s(  a- 
pow  er,  (  f  e'. 

TIm-    (ii  rmaiis    must    as    iu(li\iduals    and    as    a    Sfafe 
(io\'i  riwm  iif    and    Hiie-liNtai:      e'<  >nipr<  Ik  nd    this   and    must 

I'f  t  iM.il  s  I  M  til-  (ii  I  run.  Ill  if  all  nt  In  i  aiiiiniiU  and  nf  Iminan  In  uil'-^. 
s.'i  I  .iin«  li  <  fl'>rt  s  lia\  <■  li-  <  ii  ma-li  t  m  .  \t .  i  ininal  i  tin  i  aM.il '  iii 
\'  \s  N'.iilh  W  a!-  s  :i\,,u>  <.\.r  i;7.".<t  •»()()  ha-  In  iii  -|..  nl  aiinnall\ 
l.iit  it  1-  i.nls  lat.|\  that  I  h-  plaLMn  has  hi  .  n  ain-ti.i  h\  i  \- 
<■.  |.tp.nal  i!i.'ii;^'ht  (  aiisiniT  tin  rahhits  tu  p«ii'-h  in  iinint  nsc 
niiintx  IS. 


Germany's  Over-population  a  Menace    327 

not  seek  to  throw  tlic  hlanic  on  other  nations  siijjposcd 
to  be  actuated  by  envy,  ete.  It  is  waste  of  encrj^'y  to 
plead  their  ''just  cause,"  that  it  is  their  only  wish  to  live 
in  peace  and  injoy  their  prosperity,  and  slnuit  "I)<ath 
to  the  Kn^Mish  !  "  Kni,'land  has  not  |)revented  (ierniany's 
acquisition  of  colonies,  nor  has  she  been  able  to  cheek 
German  reproductiveness,  (ierniaiiy's  ^'ravest   dau^^'er. 

That  the  (Jerinan  (Government  would,  were  h'rance  to 
be  concjuered,  demand  soiue  ol"  iier  most  valual)le  colonics 
is  beyond  doubt.  This  may  Ix-  ^'athered  from  the  n  j)ly 
which  the  (ierman  Chancellor  made  to  Sir  l-'.dward  (ioscheu, 
the  liritish  ambassador,  on  July  *J'.)  (sec  British  Blue  Hook, 
No.  So)  :  "  Every  assurance  will  be<,M\-en  that  tiie  Im|)erial 
Government  aims  at  no  territorial  ac(juisit  ions  at  tlu; 
expense  of  France  .  .  .  but  he  could  not  i^iic  a  similar 
tindcrtaking  xvith  regard  to  the  French  colonies.'' 

The  Gernuuis  have  never  been  such  ca|)al)le  colonizers 
as  the  British  and  French,  and  tiuit  is  one  of  the  chief 
reasons  why  they  have  not  prolited  much  i)y  their  colonies. 
But  this  is  no  reason  why  they  should  seek  to  take  colonies 
aieny  from  others  who  have  accjuired  them  at  the  cost  of 
great  sacrifices. 

It  has  been  one  of  the  aims  of  the  German  chauvinists 
that  as  soon  as  Germany  has  secured  the  luLremony  of 
Eurojie  she  shall  gain  the  hegemony  of  tlie  wiiole  world 
witli  the  aid  of  a  vast  colonial  emi)irc,  and  they  are  by  no 
means  content  to  pursue  a  peaceful  cxistenci-  in  the 
enjoyment  of  their  hard-earned  j)ros])erity.  Tiie  beli(  f 
in  Germany's  ability  to  achieve  all  this  and  the  faith  in 
her  mission  to  save  the  world  by  means  of  lu^r  '"  culture  " 
have  long  been  dominant  amongst  the  (Germans,  thanks 
to  the  Germanistic  doctrine  and  the  successts  of  (iernian 
arms. 

One  hears  too  much  in  Germany  of  Germany's  gn  atiu  ^s 
and  cultural  importance,  of  her  call  to  guide  tiie  \vorl(l. 
I  nuist  once  again  ])oint  out  that  a  growing  j)op\ilalion  is 
by  no  means  synonymous  with  growing  eivili/.atory  wortli. 
Oiitzcard  greatness  is  not  the  same  as  cultural  greatness. 


328   Before,  Di'ring,  and  After  1014 

In  reality  tluro  are  in  every  country  but  relatively 
few  intelligent  and  noble  minds  Avho  represent  the  higher 
culture.  The  gnat  majority  of  the  people  enjoy  its 
benetits  without  them^iivts  contributing  to  it  ;  every 
country  has  innuineralili-  nu dioerities  and  iiuuimerable 
uninttlligrnt  antl  useless  individuals,  jiarasites  who  are 
but  a  burden  to  the  eonununity.  Of  (i(  rmanys  colossal 
population  the  latt(r  lorni  a  con^ideral)le  j>art,  and  when 
tiie  country  claims  the  need  of  an  expansion  policy  for  its 
sixty-eiglit  millions,  it  cannot  l)e  too  clearly  realized  that 
it  is  not  lor  the  sake  of  the  re|)res(  ntat  ives  of  the  higher 
culture,  but  on  behalf  of  many  millions  of  inferior  and 
relati\clv  useless  Ijeini's. 


XIV 

FOUXDATIOXS  OF  TKAC  K  AFTER  TIIF  WAR 

KvKuv  nation,  every  indix  idual  lias  now  lor  many  nmntlis 
been  lonnin^  lor  the  liorril)le  war  to  stop,  so  tliat  a  r<  al 
peace  may  l)e  eoneluded.  Hut  now,  at  tlie  end  of.May  l!tl."i, 
after  the  war  lias  lasted  ten  months,  jxaee  is  as  far  off  as 
ever  and  the  outcome  of  the  conflict  is  \ery  uncertain. 
What,  then,  it  may  he  ask((l,  is  the  use  of  outsiders 
discussing  the  (jiicstion  of  peace  when  they  have  not  the 
slightest  influence  over  the  course  of  the  war  and  over 
the  belligerent  Powers  ? 

Altlu)ugh  such  discussion  may  serve  no  direct  j)urposc, 
it  may  nevertheless  l)e  fruitful  as  jtrejniring  the  groundwork 
for  the  views  which  it  is  hojxd  that  the  nations  will  hold 
when  jieacc  ap])roaches  and  they  come  to  discuss  the 
conditions  which  are  to  preclude  the  possibility  of  fresh 
wars.     For  that  is  a  sine  qua  uon  amongst  all  the  nations. 

It  is  from  Holland  that  the  lu'st  general  aj)|)eal  in  this 
respect  has  come  since  the  war  began,  the  ""  Xedei'landsehe 
Anti-Oorlog  Raad  ""  having  been  f\)rmed  with  the  object 
of  pri'paring  for  the  coming  jieace.  At  a  discussion  at  The 
Hague  between  re])resentatives  both  of  the  belligerent  and  of 
neutral  Powers  (April  101.'))  certain  fundamental  conditions 
were  agrt'cd  U))on  which  were  to  form  the  groundwork  for 
])eace  pro]niganda  among  the  nations.  This  proLrranniic, 
which  has  recently  been  acce])ted  by  the  Swinli-h  Pt  ace 
League,  contains  the  following  jioints  : 

(1)  Annt'xali(jn  or  cession  of  Itrrilori/  must  not  take  ]>lace 
in  opposition  to  the  interests  and  uishes  ofiJie  population. 

329 


330       Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

(2)  The  States  shall  afrrec  to  introduce  full  freedom  of 
commerce  in  tluir  colonies,  protectorates,  and  spheres  of 
interest. 

(3)  The  work  of  The  Iltrj^ue  Cnnferences  for  the  pro- 
mot  it)n  of  international  laws  shall  he  continuetl. 

These  Conferences  shall  have  a  permanent  ur'j^anization 
and  nnist  meet  at  re<,'ular  intervals. 

The  Stat(  s  shall  a^ree  to  refer  all  disputes  to  judicial 
settlement  or  to  investiijation  and  to  tentative  arbitration. 
With  this  object  it  will  hi-  necessary  to  institute,  besides 
the  existing'  Arbitration  Tribunal  at  The  Ilaj^nie  :  {a)  A 
pernument  international  tribunal  ;  {h)  a  permanent  eom- 
missiim  (f  investi<i(itii)n  which  may  contin<,'ently  submit 
proposals  for  an  amicable  settlement. 

The  States  shall  bind  themselves  by  mutual  consent  to 
take  diplomatic,  economic,  or  military  sttj)s  //  a  country 
should  re-sort  to  urtns  instead  of  submitting'  the  dispute  to 
a  tribunal  or  to  the  in\(sti;,'ation  of  tiie  eonnnission  (f 
investigation. 

(1)  The  Statis  shall  seek  to  come  to  an  a;^Mccm(  nt  with 
a  view  to  mutual  limitation  (f  armaments.  The  ri'^ht  of 
capture  shall  be  abro'^ated,  and  the  prineij)lc  of  the  fretdoni 
(;f  the  seas  shall  be  established. 

(.'))  Forei<in  polici/  siiall  be  subject  to  effective  Parlia- 
mentanj  controL  so  that  secret  treaties  withheld  from  the 
Parliaments  luay  not  be  binding'  on  the  nations. 

These  demands,  which  contain  the  main  points  of  all 
previous  proposals  of  the  last  two  hundred  years  for  the 
pr(  ser\at  ion  of  durable  |)(aee,  must  be  eiidorsi  d  l)y  all 
enli;:liteiied  men  and  women  so  that  they  may  take  eoiu- 
mon  aetion  for  the  prev<  ntiou  of  war  ami  the  saf(  jjuardini^ 
of  p(  rmam  lit  jxaee.  The  pro^rannue  was  duly  accepted 
b\'  the  <,'reat  NN'oiutiis  I'eaee  (oni^'ress  hi  Id  at  The  Ila^^ue 
in  May   1 '.»!.".. 

In  order  that  durable  peace  nia\'  be  eusinvd  for  the 
future  if  is  neei  ssar\'  that  the  Cnm^ri  ss  which  will  take 
place  bct\\((ii  the  bellitji  ri  lit  ( io\erniii<  lit  s,  aftir  an 
armistice  has  been  a^Tccd  uj)on,  shall  expr<ss  the  a///  of  all 


Foundations  of  Peace  After  the  War    liin 

the  natiuns  (liaicn  into  the  icur  ami  shall  include  national 
represontutivfs  ck't'tcd  hy  the  Parliaments.  Wlun-  the 
latter  arc  not  sittin<j;  they  should  he  eonveiu d  without 
loss  of  time. 

At  a  Con^M'css  thus  constituted  the  nations  thrm.silivs  will 
be  able  to  decide  as  to  their  fate,  and  resolve  that  foreij^ru 
territory  may  not  be  annexed  in  opposition  to  the  will  of 
the  population.  It  shall  and  musi  have  po\V(  r  to  d( cnc 
relative  disarmament  and  the  settlement  of  dispute  s  by 
mediation  and  arbitration  throu^di  a  e(»mmission  in- 
vest ijj^at  ion  and  a  peace  tribunal. 

The  incidents  leadin*,'  uj)  to  the  ^Vorld  ^Var  ha\-e  clearly 
shown  how  unsatisfactorily  the  fori'i<,Mi  policy  of  the  State 
has  been  conducted,  beinp:,  as  it  is,  in  the  hands  of  a  small 
oliii^arehy  of  a  /itc  slatcsnicn  xcho  conduct  secret  nciioiiniions 
and  at  a  given  moment,  witliout  notice  to  or  control  by 
the  national  representatives,  decide  npon  xcurlike  ocdon. 

Yet  other  Powers,  and  more  |)artieularly  a  disinterested 
Great  Power,  Great  Britain,  came  forward  with  ])roposals 
for  mediation,  which,  if  accepted,  nii^dit  have  |)re\(  iited 
the  war.  Instead  of  entertainini,'  these  pri)posals,  these 
Icadiuii^  statesmen  exchanired  notes  on  incidental  matters, 
mobilization,  etc.,  which  wert'  made  out  to  be  deeisi\-e 
reasons  for  war,  and  settled  everything  with  watch  and 
almanac  in  hand,  in  accordance  with  an  unaeceptal)le 
ultimatum.  It  was  the  puri'st  piirodij  of  enlightened 
})oliey  between  civilized  countries. 

Are  the  luitions  to  j)ut  up  with  this  sort  of  thini:  for  ever  ? 
The  answer  must  be  no  I  Can  it  be  toUrated  that  a  handful 
of  men  shall  continue  to  ])e  allowed  to  decree  the  slaughter 
of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  human  beings  and  the 
unha[){)iness  of  millions  ?     No.  a  thousand  times  no  I 

The  nations  nuist  rise  against  this  mad  system  ot  des- 
potic conduct  of  Statt^  affaii's,  and  nuist  insist  at  ont-e, 
e\"erywhere.  on  constitutional  laws  which  will  safiLTuartl 
the  jKnieeable  intercourse  of  nations  aiul  preclude  crattily 
engineered  warlike  confliets. 


332        Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

In  most  countries  the  Government  alone  is  responsible 
for  the  foreijjn  policy  and  need  not  consult  Parliament. 
Germany  and  Russia  are  typical  examples  of  the  absolute 
authority  of  the  G(jvernment,  or,  rather,  of  the  monarch, 
in  this  respect. 

In  countries  with  constitutional  t,'ovi  rnment  and  an 
advanced  parliamentary  system  the  Cio\trmnent  is  always 
in  contact  with  I'arliament  on  matters  c»f  fon  ij,Mi  j)«>liey, 
although  usually  ha\in^'  the  powir  to  decide  in  the  last 
resort. 

In  the  l'nit((l  States  and  Norway,  however,  forei<jn 
policy  is  under  constitutional  control.  The  I'risidcnt  of 
the  I'nited  States  and  the  (iovermnent  deliberate  with  the 
Committee  of  the  t'on^ri -^s  in  foreign  affairs  ixfort.'  comiu)^' 
to  a  decision  as  to  tin  ir  |)oliey  in  matters  of  importanci'. 

In  Sweden  it  is  customary,  when  serious  j)olitieal  com- 
plications apjirar  to  thn  at(  n  the  country's  neutrality  and 
j)aeilie  attitude,  for  the  KiuLT  to  '"inNite  spi-eial  deputies 
of  the  Hik^tlaj,'  to  delil»erate  with  him  on  matters  which 
should  in  his  \i(  w  be  kept  si-ent,"  pursuant  to  .\rtieje  ")  1 
of  the  Constitution.  These  Dcjiuties  have,  how(  \  (  r,  no 
])ower  of  decision. 

If  wars  are  in  future  t<»  be  averted  Ix  tween  European 
States  a  yicctssdnj  vonsinnindiini]  it  is  lirst  and  foremost 
imp(  rat  i\c  : 

(1)  That  a  stdtt'  nf  xmr  sjiall  not  be  decreed  merely  as  a 
result  of  nci/ot  iat  ions  <.r  an  t  \elia?iL,'<'  of  notes  bitwecn 
a  couple  of  st  at  csnien  or  between  a  tfi"!i<ircli  ainl  a  Fnitiiin 
Ministry  or  CIkiiu  t  llnr,  e  sscnt  iall\-  in  accordance  with  the 
old  rcL'iiiic  of  aufocrac\.  but  that  the  rt  jn't  s,  ul(itr<  t  s  aj 
tlir  jxiiplr  shall,  in  pursuance  of  the  piinciples  of  cn- 
lil,'hten((l  democracy,  be  cdusnited  in  si. me  t"orm  or  other, 
either  c'ljlect  iveU'  or  li\   delei^at  ii 'II. 

('_')  That  all  .States  nnist  uiie't  .ndit  ioiiallw  befoic  a 
d(  e-laraf  ii )!!  of  \\ar  is  issued.  suJnnit  tin  iiiiiU(rs  in  disjnitf 
t'l  niidiiition  (  if  he  r  f  hroUL'h  e|eleij;it  e  s  <.f  a  numbi  r  of  e.f  he  r 
States  or  fhrmiL'h  the    l*e  ac<    Tribunal  at  The-  lla^-Mie-. 


Foundations  of  Peace  After  the  War   333 

(3)  That  ivar  must  not  be  declared  by  ultiinutmn  ullDwinjf 
an  insiiilicicnt  tiiiu-  such  as  twenty-four  or  forty-ci^'ht 
hours  for  a  reply,  as  is  usually  done,  and  that  a  longer 
titne,  at  least  a  montli,  nuist  he  allowed,  so  as  to  avoid 
precipitate  jud^nuent  and  j^mvc  time  for  mature  relh ctiou. 

These  three  cardinal  conditions,  the  justice  of  which 
must  he  as  clear  as  dayli<,'ht  to  every  thinkinj,'  jxrson,  were 
ignored  in  tlu>  negotiations  l)etwe<'n  the  I'owers  on  the 
eve  of  the  ^Vorld  War. 

//  must  not  he  tolerated,  at  the  end  of  this  stupendous 
World  War,  that,  as  happened  after  the  Franco-Cierman 
War  of  1870-71,  the  States  shall  he  allowetl  to  renew  their 
efforts  in  the  direction  iA'  fresh  armaments,  to  prepare  for 
fresh  wars.  There  must  he  an  end  to  this  era  of  wars,  which 
is  contrary  to  all  tenets  of  civilization.  Every  enlightened 
person  in  the  whole  world  demands  it. 

All  States  must  agree,  if  not  to  disarmament,  then  at 
least  to  a  considerable  reduetion  of  the  militari/  est(d)lisliment, 
let  us  say  to  one-tenth  thereof,  so  that  only  militia  troops 
remain. 

The  stupendous  expenditure  for  warlike  ])urposes  such  as 
this  World  War  has  witnessed,  and  which  gives  rise  to 
terrible  losses  whilst  leaving  the  contending  j)arties  at  the 
same  relative  strength,  must  not  be  incurred  unain. 

So  long  as  the  States  are  not  al)le  to  agree  upon  a  nenerul 
reduction  of  armies  and  navies,  it  will  be  useless  to  hope  for 
]ieaee.     Peace  in  such  circumstances  will  be  but  a  truce. 

It  will  be  necessary,  first  of  all,  to  reduce  the  military 
establishment  in  the  military  country  par  excellence  : 
Germany.  So  long  as  this  military  Power  is  not  restricted, 
there  can  be  no  ]ieace. 

The  coming  Peace  Congress  will  have  no  task  more 
urgent.  For  how  can  it  serve  the  world  if  the  Congress 
decides  with  an  overwlulming  majority  upon  a  reduction 
of  the  military  establishments,  ujion  mediation  and  arbi- 
tration, etc.,  if  Germany  is  not  a  party  to  these  measures  ? 

But  even  if  she  consents,  this  means  nothing  if  her 
military  establishment   is   not  reduced,    for  in  that   ease 


334       Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

Germany,  with  lar  military  orpmization,  licr  five  to  ten 
million  nu-n  in  arms,  can  ddy  the  rulin(,'s  of  tlie  Congress 
and  the  rights  of  natit)ns. 

And  Russia  ?  Is  n<>t  this  colossal  Empire  as  dangerous 
a  military  l*o\vi  r  as  Cirrmany,  and  is  she  not  as  great  a 
menaet-  to  the  jttaei-  of  the  world  '! 

No.  Russia  (hsstininates  her  surj)his  jxtpulation  ovir 
Sihiria  (.scr  j).  .'ill )  and  is  not  in  the  same  sriisc  as  Ciermany 
a  military  Power  ;  she  is  not,  as  Ciermany.  organized  in 
every  detail  of  her  social  life  for  military  ]»urj)oscs,  nor  is 
she,  like  (icrmaii)',  permanently  on  a  stiiii  war  footing. 
Till-  I{ussian  {H-oj)le  an-  not,  like  the  Ciermans,  inspired  with 
warlike  ideals  and  have  had  no  great  wars,  no  apostles  of 
war  to  inculcate  its  glories.  Such  a  work  as  Hernhardi's 
could  n<»t  have  been  written  in  Russia.  If  we  ixcej)t  a 
certain  war  party,  those  who  have  studied  the  Russian 
nation  will  admit  that  the  educated  liussian  is  as  nnich  a 
l^urojxan  as  the  l'"ri  iiehman,  the  (ierman.  tlu-  Swede,  and 
so  I'orth,  and  lias  no  yearning  for  war  and  eontjuest  :  the 
nati(«ii;il  t(  inper  is  on  the  whole  giiitle  and  scnsitist', 
accessible  to  good  impulse  s.  S\\((|)iiig  and  much  nei  d(  cl 
reforms  will  come  in  due  course,  and  one  o|'  the  most 
important  has  already  been  introduced  during  the  war: 
the  at)olit  ion  of  vodka. 

Russia  will  in  a  not  far  distant  future  j)i-ol)al)ly  cease 
altogetJKr  to  !)(•  riil'd  b\-  an  autocratic  Tsar,  and  it  is 
not  unlik' ly  that  se\(  ral  autonomous  States,  in  Poland. 
Ikraiin,  <  te.,  will  be  en  ated  and  give  rise  to  a  Russian 
Cl  mfi  (1.  racy. 

It  mav  still  t>e  of  inti-n  st  to  sa\'  a  f<  w  words  about  the 
addr.  ss  whieh  I'rof-  -.sor  \V.  ( )st  u  aid  d.  li\  (  r.d  at  Stockholm 
in  ()etob(  r  r.tl  I.  w  Im  n  Ip  \  isil.  d  S\s  rdi  ii  as  an  ""  int  (  lit  ct  ual 
war  \ohmf<ir  '  at  the  instigation  of  t  h(  ik  \vl\-  foriued 
'"  Kult  urbiiiid.  wjiosi  priiiei|ili  s  .md  aims  he  jiropouiidid, 
alt)ioii;'h  li<-  addid  a  !< w  jm  isonal  o|iinioiis  of  his  own. 
Tii<-  |ollo\siiig  Is  a  stateiu'  lit  which  he  issu(d  to  srAcral 
n<w  spajfcrs.      '"  People  talk  ni  liri  iiuin  iiiililtirism,  and  the 


Foundations  of  Peace  After  the  War    385 

dislike  wliith  Germany  lias  created  in  the  worki  may 
perhaps  he  due  to  its  growth.  IJut  this  very  '  militarism  " 
is  one  ot"  the  most  powerlvd  expressi(M»s  of  Giruunujs 
organizing  poxcir.  I  say  frankly  that  I  consider  that 
Germany  throu«rh  her  organization  tah  nt,  has  r<  aehrd  a 
higher  slagf  of  civilizdlion  than  the  other  nations,  and  that 
the  war  will  he  the  means  of  achniliing  (luni  to  a  higher 
civilization  on  this  hasis. 

"  What  does  Germany  want  ?  (iermany  wants  to 
organize  Europe  !  For  hitherto  Kuro])e  has  hy  no  nu  ans 
been  organized.  Ciermany  wants  to  strike  out  in  a  new 
direction  in  order  to  realize  the  idea  of  united  effort.  I  will 
explain  to  you  Germany  s  great  secret.  We,  or  p»  rhaps 
the  Germanic  race,  have  discovered  ihv  fact  (f  organization. 
The  other  nations  still  live  in  the  epoch  of  indiiidaalism. 
We  live  in  that  of  organization.  ^V^th  us  the  whole  stri\-es 
to  develop  every  })art  to  its  highest  possible  ellieieney,  but 
at  the  same  time  to  guide  it  into  the  j)ath  where  it  will  be 
most  useful  to  the  community.  That  is  our  liberty,  the 
highest  forni  of  liberty,  in  which  all  forces  arc  |)resirved 
and  co-operate." 

This  pronouncement  })y  the  eminent  scientist  and 
pacifist,  who  in  his  cultm'al  mission  to  Sweden  had  Ixhind 
him  a  large  body  of  representatives  of  (German  culture, 
shows  lis  more  j)lainly  than  anything  lu»w  tiu'  (iermanistic 
dreams  of  greatness,  blended  with  the  all-eon(iui  ring 
militarism,  has  perverted  the  vision  of  even  tjie  Ix  ^t  nwn 
in  Ciermany.  Ail  seem  to  have  had  the  sanu-  train  of 
reasoning  drilled  into  them  :  (iernian  military  j)owir  is 
synonymous  with  a  higher  civilization,  and  iMU-ope  must 
be  organized  on  tlu-  foundations  of  7)iilit(iris))i.  Such 
peculiar  ideas  as  that,  for  instance,  the  Citrmans  or  the 
Germanic  race  have  "  discovered  ihc  fact  oj  onianiiahdn 
can  thrive  only  in  a  confused  mind.  There  is  no  sriisr  in 
this  phrase,  viewed  as  an  abstract  conception. 

The  Germans  may  have  shown  great  oruani/.inLr  powir 
in  developing  their  military  system,  but  Napoleon  may 
also  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest  militarv  organizers 


886        Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

known  to  history.  And  it  will  surtly  In-  concicKd  that  tlic 
Enjjlish  arc  sin<:ularly  capaijK-  orj^anizirs  in  rcjLjarcl  l)oth  to 
tluir  ct)l(»ni(s  and  to  tluir  na\y. 

(icrniany's  ambition  to  *'  ori^ani/.c  Kuropc  '"  means  that 
when  Gt-rmaiiy  has  won  and  has  dictated  the  terms  of 
peace  (ierman  Imj)irialism  is  to  rule  iMirojJC  and  ri  inodtl 
the  map  of  the  world  to  suit  lu  r  own  id«as. 

The  States  which  are  to  he-  or^'anized  so  that  tluy  may 
co-oj)erate  with  tiie  con(}nerintj  Cierman  Empire  are  n() 
donl)t  to  1)1-  allotted  tlie  role  of  vassals,  hut  this  prospect 
tempts  no  one     quite  the  contrary. 

Every  State  nnist  ine\ital)ly  cherish  its  independence, 
none  willin^'ly  forfeits  its  liherty,  and  Prussia's  treatment 
of  Poles  and  Danes  in  amuxed  j)rovinces  has  furnished  us 
with  a  forbidding,'  i  xample  ol'  the  Cierman  mithod  of 
or<,'anization. 

I'rofes^or  Franz  von  Lis/J.  the  famous  criminoloirist,  has 
come  forward  sine<-  tin-  war  Ix^^mu  (Oetoix  r  I'.M  t)  with 
j)roposals  coiiecrniiii,'  (itrmany's  I'uturc  and  lur  intt  r- 
natittnal  jxisition  :  his  schcnif  is  a  Ciiitral  I\uro|iean 
C'onlc(h-ration.  and  his  plan  of  or«:anizat  itin  e<'iiiei(l(s  on 
essential  points  with  that  proj)oim(l( d  by  Ostwald.  In 
common  with  all  otlur  (icrmans  he  lidds  that  li(  rmany 
is  menaced  primarily  by  l-jiLiIand.  but  also  by  Russia. 
Hi-  tak(  s  up  till-  standpoint  thai  (ii  rniany  cannot  even 
after  a  s\icc(sn|'u1  war  attain  a  di  :jr<c  of  material  slrcULrth 
which  will  srcnre  her  a^'aiust  tin'  world  Powi  rs  ol"  (ircat 
Hritain  and  Russia.  Hi  nee  Ik  r  rmii  <ly  lies  in  a  (ontVdi  ra- 
tion of  Stall-. 

(ii-rmanv.  as  a  result  of  this  war,  nnisl  aspnc  to  the 
following  endN  :  she  mus|  satisfy  the  need  <  A'  fn!,>n  i<  s  indis- 
[xrisable  to  an  industrial  .stale,  sin-  nin-.l  ii  cni'^htutr  tlir 
(iirrtian  Stnfis  inti  rnallw  and  she  uiUnI  orL,'ani/.e  the 
Cinhiil  l\nrnp(  iin  (null  (h  riitmrt . 

Swiihii,  N'orwaw  and  Denmark  are  tempted  with  the 
added  s.(Mirit\'  aL'aiust  (ii'ial  Riilam  and  Russia  and  with 
the     prospect     lli.at     the\-     m;i\-     beconie    a     .Seanduia\  ian 


Foundations  of  Peace  After  the  War  .'J37 

subdivision  of  tlu>  (irt-at  Confederation,  possibly  witli  tin- 
addition  of  Finland,  which  sliouhl  hencefortli  he  free,  hk<- 
Pohmd  and  Ukraine. 

All  the  nienihers  of  the  Confederation  are  to  ntain 
their  independence.  But  the  union  l)(t\ve(  ii  tlum  must 
l)e  "  riveted  "  l)y  their  constitutions  and  eeinenttd  l>v  a 
military  convention.  In  other  words,  there  must  he  a  sort 
of  common  Parliament  with  d(  l(^^•lt ions. 

A  delicate  point  of  the  pro^M'amme  is,  of  course,  that 
whicli  concerns  (Jermany's  position.  Lis/t  rejects  the 
term  "  hcLremony,"'  hut  accepts  the  fornmla  primus  inltr 
p(n('s\  and  em|)hasiy,es  that  the  post  of  h  .idersjiip  must 
preferahly  he  based  on  a  willini^uK  ss  to  Ix.ir  the  burdens 
of  others  (!).  He  also  holds  out  hopes  of  tjie  (iermaus 
becominif  more  amial)le  and  reliued  in  their  mainn  r,  h  ss 
intractable  and  overbearin*,',  once  they  \\t\  safe  and 
unassailable  and  are  conse(juently  al)le  to  bestow  more 
care  on  the  choicer  blooms  of  cultm'c. 

In  sj)ite  of  nuuiy  t^ood  ideas  and  a  moderation  which  is 
in  marked  contrast  to  most  other  Cierman  proposals  and 
appeals  to  neutral  luitions,  I.iszt  nevertheh  ss  shows  that 
he  is  under  the  induence  of  the  same  hypnosis  as  all  other 
(Jermans  in  rcijard  to  the  origin  and  outcome  of  the  war. 
the  charfjcs  against  l^ehrium.  iMiirland's  culpabihtv,  etc. 
lie  endorses  tlie  viiw  which  Dr.  (i.  Irmer,  Legation  Coun- 
cillor, advances  in  his  j)amj)hlet  on  Fnirland's  "  world 
yoke  ""  and  her  role  as  instiirator  of  the  NN'orld  \N'ar,  as 
unl)alance(l  and  one-sided  an  exposition  as  one  can  well 
imagine.  lie  l)lames  in  the  iirst  ])la('e  I-',dward  \"1I  for 
the  anti-(ierman  policy  of  lOnuland.  and  says  that  Sir 
Kdward  Grey  is  merely  the  executor  of  his  jiolitieal  testa- 
ment :  "  English  jiolicy  stands  arraii,nu(l  fur  all  time 
before  the  tribunal  of  history  as  the  unscrupulous  instigator 
of  this  consjiiracy  airainst  the  (ierman  Empire,  and 
Euijjland  nuist  bear  the  burden  of  havinu'  launched  this 
European  war  against  us." 

Curiously  enough,  Liszt  and  Irmer.  together  with 
Professor    Lamjirecht,    in    their    joint    preface    to    these 

Y 


338        Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

pamphlets,  which  form  part  of  a  series  entitled  'Tzvixt 
JVar  and  Peace,  ^ave  vent  to  their  joy  over  the  war,  clearly 
in  the  unshakable  conviction  that  (icrnuiny  will  win. 
They  (piote  Treitschke's  words  about  war  as  a  "  fountain 
of  health  for  the  people  "  and  di-clare  that  it  has  now 
"  come  into  its  own,  "  and  they  acknowK-d^f  that  (iirniany 
liersilf  took  the  offensive.  They  deplore  "  the  distrcssinj^ 
era  of  j)olitical  decline,  which  lilled  the  stoutest  hearts 
with  anxiety  for  the  future,"  and  ri-joice  that  "'the  valiant 
enernn  of  leadin<i  slrate<ii,sts  has  evoked  in  the  hour  of 
crisis  throughout  the  land  the  unanimous  cry  :  '  At  last 
the  hour  has  come  for  action  and  tlelivtrance  I  '  '"  It  may 
\)c  opportune  in  this  connexion  to  recall  IJernhardi's 
words  in  the  preface  to  his  book  Gernianif  and  the  Se-it  War, 
which  I  have  already  qut)ted  (p.  117)  ;  it  is  curious  to  note 
his  concordance  with  the  sentiments  of  these  authors. 

They  (hclare  that  "sword  and  pen  must  not  rest  imtil 
(iermany  with  rejuvenated  stren^^th  rises  from  this  new 
ordeal  as  u  ouaranfar  <if  a  peaceful  future  and  as  a  staunch 
proltctor  ai^aiust  the  arrogance  and  conlunu  li/  of  hi/'^nne 
da]/s."  No  su;:j,'est ion,  it  is  to  be  noted,  that  (it  riiiany 
has  ever  l)een  guilty  of  arnt^rance  and  contumely. 

.\s  will  be  seen.  Lis/.t  proj)oses  to  found  the  coming'  peace 
on  a  Central  Kuropean  Confederation  which  is  to  kicp  in 
check  the  two  lueuacinj,'  worldFowers  of  (treat  liritain  and 
Iiussid.  As  till-  baekl)one  of  t  liis  ("onfederat  ion  (Jermany 
and  Anst  ria  IIun;rary  is  not  considered  strong,'  enou},'h  to 
combat  t  liese  t  wo  INtwers  it  is  projxtsed  that  other  Isuropean 
States.  primaril\"  those  wlio  have  b<»ii  neutral  in  this  war, 
sjioiild  (liter  till-  Ciiiift  (l<rat  ion. 

This  brink's  Us  lace  to  taee  wit  li  the  ""  if  "  <>f  t  he  (iermau 
scheme  :  \Nill  the  nt  ntral  Stat«  s  nf  Europe  au'ree  to  become 
not  only  alhed  to.  Imt  or;,'anieally  and  (•■  >nst  it  ut  i<>nally 
Ixtund  up  with,  (Germany  as  the  leadiiiL,'  State,  with  the 
objret  the  paramount  task  of  oppositii^  (ireat  Britain 
and  Russia  in  anticipation  of  enviin'j,  tears  ? 

Surely  therr  is  not  a  single  countri/  to  which  this  plan 
ap|M  als. 


Foundations  of  Peace  Ai<ter  tiih  War  ;ia:» 

None  of  the  States  who  liuvc  rciiuiiiicd  mutral  in  tin- 
World  War  will  have  any  cause  for  hostility  tow.ufU 
(ireat  Hritaiu  and  Russia  ;  on  the  contrary,  all  of  t  Ik  m  will 
he  anxious  to  remain  on  friendly  terms  with  flu  sr  |'ow(  is. 
Least,  of  all  should  Sweden.  Norway,  and  Dmniark  drsir<- 
to  pick  a  (juarrel  with  them,  and  this  tin  \  liav(  amply 
shown  hy  the  neutrality  which  t  heir  (iovi  rmnenf  s,  with 
dear-sighted  resolution,  i)roelaimed  at  tin-  onts.t  of 
the  war. 

A  curious  example  of  the  (Jerman  notion  that  it  has 
IxH-n  reserved  for  (Icrmany  to  ornnnize  that  creatiNc  enl- 
ture  which,  as  Ostwald  says,  is  to  supt  rsede  •"  a  single 
nation's  hrutal  nuistery  and  heeome  the  paramount 
factor  in  the  realm  of  justice  and  order."  has  Ixt n  fur- 
nished hy  Dr.  F.  Xaumann,  a  cleric,  in  an  article  in  his 
pajK-r  />/<■  Ililfi'  (Octoher  li)ll).  Pastor  Xaumann  is  a 
niemher  of  the  Cierman  Keichsta^^  belongs  to  the  "  I'oit- 
schrittliche  Volkspartei  "  (Pronrrcssive  Democratic  Partv) 
and  took  part  in  the  inter- j)arliamentary  eon<,M<ss  of 
German  and  French  delciratcs  held  at  Hale  in  the  sprin<r  of 
191  k 

lie  considers  that  the  most  im|)ortant  result  of  this  war 
will  he  tlu'  formation  of  stron<^er  confederacies  of  Stati  s 
than  have  hitherto  existed,  and,  cleric  withal,  he  seems  to 
discern  in  the  sani]:uiiuirv  carnao-e  a  hii,dier  reason  or  a 
divine  interposition  and  guidance. 

To  him  the  interests  of  peace  are  best  sei-\i(l  1)\-  pro- 
motiuLT  the  formation  of  lar^e  States  hy  tin-  amaluamation 
of  smaller  ones,  and  he  condemns  a^  doinir  poor  ser\  ice 
to  the  cause  of  p(\ice  those  who  u])lioId  a  system  of  ^niall 
States  maintained  hy  the  principK'  of  neuti-ality.  Di-. 
Xaumann  iroes  so  far  as  to  deny  the  ""  moral  ri-jlit  ""  of 
neutrality.  It  is  tlu^  duty  of  nationalities  as  w  II  ;is  of 
individuals  to  take  sides  wIk  ii  called  upon  to  {]>)  so. 
XeitluM'  must  stand  aj>art  ;  they  nni-^t  tak(^  up  t  Ju  ir  pi  >st  in 
the  strufjii'lc  ;  and  nuist  art,nie  that  he  who  seeks  isolation 
in  realitv  violates  the  natural  law  which  directs  that   no 


310        Before,  Diring,  and  After  191  i 

one  must  shirk  participation  in  the  fipht  for  h\rpcr  con- 
federacies -the  Toiu\  to  peace  and  happiness. 

The  Helijian  d<votion  to  neutrahty  was  cijotistical  and 
sellish.  Kor,  according'  t(»  Dr.  Xauinann,  one  cainiot 
a(hnit  tlu-  unconditional  ri^jht  of  the  iiuHvidual  State  to 
oj)l)osc  ••  a  univrrval  r( constitution."  Wars  an-,  nowa- 
(hi\ ».  a  "  process  of  (>r<:ani/,atory  transpositions  in  the 
evohition  of  humanity." 

"The  leadership  of  mankind  is  now  heini;  fouj^ht  for. 
ln(li\idually  one  can  understand  the  wishes  of  the  neutrals, 
hut  in  point  of  prineijde  one  eamiot  acknowledge  their 
rlLTJit  to  e\ade  the  pro^ressi\e  centralization  of  the  leader- 
ship of  mankind." 

This  means,  in  other  words,  that  Helijiunj  ou<,dit  to  ha\-e 
sul»i>r(linatt  (1  herself  to  tiermany's  leadership  hy  \iitue  of 
t  he  universal  reeonst it ut ion  which  t  hat  country  is  destined 
t<i  carry  out.  We  n  ci><si\\/a-  here  the  doctrine  and  aims  of 
(iermanisiii  as  ])roelaimed  for  the  last  century. 

.Swtdens  dut\',  aeeordiiiL,'  to  Xaumaim.  under  this 
doctrine,  is  clear.  Hut  .S\v(  (h  n  has  ne\erl  heless  adhered 
to  hi-r  indep(  ndenee  and  her  neutrality. 

Till-  first  t  \\\\)<z  to  !)(•  d(  )ne  is  to  ///;/>/■(  .vx  pnhlic  ofuninti  in  till 
ciillir.id  luitinns  :cith  tlic  ahsDliilc  ritci.'<sitj/  of  rcdlizin^  tlir 
iil((i  iif  (irhilralinn.  which  has  Ioiilt  Ixcii  consist  cut  Iv 
fi.stered  l)\-  a  lar-je  munlxr  of  pliiloso|ijit  rs.  jurists,  and 
stat.sineii.  This  must  he  done  l)\'  international  tnaties, 
unihr  which  disputis  ixtweeu  Statis  must  he  settled  h\- 
aihit  rat  ion.  It  is  \-.  r\-  isstntial.  Jio\v(\<r,  that  such 
arliitratioii  luusf  not  he  ^uhji cf  to  an\  optional  consent 
of  (ilh.r  part\-:  it  luust  he  fnunihd  on  the  aeknowled;^- 
m<  lit  of  t  hi-  principle  of  arlut  rat  ii  >n  as  a  }>i  rntinu  ut  t<i''l'>r 
that  i->  to  sav,  of  ;i  jirdinush/  ratitiiil  aL.'1'eement  Ixtween 
th.-  Stat.  s. 

In  discus^inLT  iiit  crnat  jona!  t  ri  at  i<  s  respect  in i,'  a rl)it  rat  ion 
tnliun.ils,  it  eanni>t  he  maih  too  cj.  :ir  that  th<  first  and 
fiii'iiioNf  coii(iition  i^  that  the\  shall  h'-  ]u  rtumuut,  that 
tlMV  sh.ill  hi    lytnhhylii  il  iind  <iriiiinr:itl  h(lni(liini(l      mother 


Foundations  of  Pkaci:  Aitku  tin.  W  ak  .'ill 

words,  they  must  be  resorted  to  in  iTfnj  dis|»iit<  tli;it  m.iy 
arise.  It  is  too  late  to  talk  about  arbitration  unrt-  lit,- 
dispute  hds  (in\stn.  There  can  be  no  dctubt  that  once  tht 
dissension  exists,  projjosals  to  refer  it  to  arbitration  arf 
very  unhkely  to  sueeeed  when  the  sul)jcet  of  <hseoi<l  is  a 
rvally  serious  one,  for  in  that  ease  it  will  already  ha\r 
roused  the  j)assions  of  tlu-  j)eo|)l(s  and  ^'iven  rise  to 
minatory  expressions  of  opinion.  In  most  eases  tribimals 
of  arbitration  ean  only  hope  to  settle  disputes  of  a  minor 
naturi"  and  which  in  any  ease  would  not  ha\c  bmui/ht  on 
war,  and  this  will  remain  so  until  i,Miieral  ticaties  stipulat- 
ing that  uneondilionul  urbilnitiou  sliall  he  (ijijiliol  to  evirij 
kind  of  dispute  have  been  eoneluded  Ixfnrelnnid. 

13y  this  means  the  discussion  of  a  dispute  will  Ix conn- 
vastly  different,  nuieh  calmer,  much  more  jxaceable  than 
when  both  sides  know  that,  failing,'  an  agreement,  they  art- 
certain  to  resort,  accordin^r  to  militarist  tradition,  to  the 
arbitrament  of  brute  force,  or,  to  be<,nn  with,  to  armaments 
and  mobilizations  which  are  seized  upon  by  the  mws- 
papers  and  forthwith  accpiire  the  weight  o'i (ir^iumeuts  in  the 
discussion. 

It  is  quite  possible  that  j)eace  congresses  may  by  a 
resolute  attitude  avert  many  a  war,  and  compel  throULrh  the 
])rcssure  of  public  oj)inion  a  paeilic  solution  of  many  new- 
disputes  between  the  States,  lint  this  is  far  iVom  <  in>UL:h 
so  lontT  as  old  wounds  remain  unhealed,  so  lono-  as  a  feeliiiLT 
of  injustice  still  rankles.  Crimes  against  humanity  still 
besmirch  many  a  throne,  ;ind  in  many  eoimtries  certain 
parties  hold  warlike  and  chauvinistic  notions  which 
})erpetually  imj)ede  normal,  peaceable,  and  humane 
advancement. 

It  is  clear  nowadays  that  the  jieace  contire^^es  in 
the  different  ci)untries  and  the  international  peace 
conferences  with  their  humanistic  or  humanitarian 
jiroii'ranunes,  the  "a  be"  of  the  peace  mo\-eni(  iit 
which  nobody  disputi'S,  nuist  concern  theinseUcs  with 
live  politieid  que-'^tions     that    is  to  say.  with    the  vnuse'^  <<t 


312       Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

international    discord- ii'    they    arc    ti)    attain    any    real 
nnportancc. 

Xo  durahlc  pcaci'  can  hv  broii<,'ht  al)()ut  hy  the  ollicial 
peace  conferences  until  tljc  renniants  of  the  old  j)t)liey  of 
concpiest  which  survive  in  existing  treaties  have  bein 
extirpated  hy  pirniittin^'  every  nationality  incorparuitd 
zcilft  (inntlitr  by  force,  to  xcorl:  out  its  oxen  destiny.  Not  until 
then  will  national  hatred  cease  to  pollute  the  evuTents  of 
thouL.'ht,  and  not  until  tlu-n  can  there  be  any  idea  of 
limiting,'  arniaincnts,  for  so  lon^'  as  such  nations  are  under 
bonda;,'*-.  the  States  rulinj,'  and  oj)pressin^  them  will  fear 
"  rebellious  "  nioveiuents  anion^  the  snialU-r  nationalities 
whom  they  have  subdued  by  violence. 

For  over  three  d(  cades  — ;is  witnessed  by  tlu-  Ikrlin 
Treaty  of  1  ST.s  and  tlu-  abro<,'ation  of  Article  ."3  of  the  Treaty 
of  Pra^nu-  of  l.S(;«j,  which  took  |)laee  in  the  same  year 
(jucstions  of  nationality  have  bi en  kept  in  tlu-  back^'round 
in  the  j)(»licy  of  the  Cireat  I'owtrs.  liut  it  is  ol)vious  that 
sooner  or  later  they  arr  bound  to  ai>])(ar  on  the  a;,^  nda 
of  int(  mat  ioiial  j)olities.  l-'or  tht\'  arc  (pustions  <>f  life 
and  (h  ath  to  many  nationalities  in  lOurojK-,  and  the  interest 
which  tli<y  arouse  is  as  lively  as  ever.  .Ml  that  these 
nationalities  arc  waiting'  for  is  an  opportunity  to  |>rest-nt 
their  national  demands. 

I'nl'ortnnati  ly  it  has  not  been  customary  in  l\uropean 
c<immuniti«  s  to  reco;rni/.e,  and  as  far  as  possil)|e  to  repair, 
ollicial  (  rrors  and  blunch  rs  or  acts  of  injustice  on  the  part 
of  the  State. 

Lt  t  Us  hope  that  a  new  era  will  \\itness  the  introduction 
of  snch  (  \pr(  ssioiis  of  a  new  public  morality,  and  that 
injnslic(s  and  faults  connnittid  by  public  departments 
will  be  ri;,'ht((l  as  fai"  as  jxissibje  b\-  reparation  to  the 
\  iet  inis. 

WImu  The  Ila^'uc  Peace  ('onfereiie<  \sas  crtattd  in  1  S'.>S 
a  nei.'ati\c  principle  was  a(l«ipt((|  whieh,  if  it  continues  to 

be    a]i[ille(l    l((    jiiace    ((  Ul  ft  I'eUCes.    mUst     iluAltabU     pl(\(nt 

any   radical   clian;,'es.      If    was   rtsi.Ktd   that    "no  ddilxru- 
ti'>n\    re^.irdin^'     the     jxdilicdl    conditions    in    a    .State    or 


Foundations  of  Peace  Afiek  the  War  »i3 

questions  defined  by  treaties  shall  take  j)la(c.  "  'i'his  was 
proposed  hy  the  Dutch  Fortij^n  Minister  after  eoiisiiltution 
witii  the  Russian  Ciovernineiit,  and  several  (ircat  I'owi  rs 
only  accepted  the  invitation  sui)jcet  to  this  condition. 

lUit  to  achieve  a  real  peace  it  is  necessary  to  praln  to  tin- 
bottom  all  factors  of  the  international  j)olieies  of  the  (in  at 
Powers  and  their  nlations  with  other  States  and  with  con- 
quered or  annexed  territories,  to  approach  all  disputes  with 
an  oj)en  mind,  and  to  remove  known  eaus(  s  of  dissatisfae- 
tion.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  discuss  not  only 
possible  future  causes  of  discord,  hut  to  t^o  into  <iri(V(inris  of 
old  standing,  questions  of  legalized  hrutaliti/,  which,  a^'ain, 
make  it  necessary  to  examine  certain  treaties  forced  upon 
unwilling  nationalities  and  to  revise  them.  Otherwise  a 
peace  conference  becomes  illusory  and  useless  as  a  m(  ans 
of  averting  fresh  wars. 

Nothing  in  politics  is  irrevocable,  least  of  all  the  ruthless 
conquest  and  annexation  of  countries  and  provinces  against 
the  wish  and  the  will  of  the  population. 

There  are  many  black  spots  on  the  map  of  Kuroj)e  which 
denote  crimes  against  the  law  of  nations  and  usurpation 
of  the  rights  of  nationality,  to  the  enduring  shame  of 
European  civilization.  To  establish  tjie  freedom  of 
nations  and  their  right  to  work  out  their  own  destiny  must 
be  one  of  the  chief  duties  of  the  Peace  Congress  which  will 
follow  this  war  ;    otherwise  there  can  be  no  peace. 

This  is  no  place  for  going  into  these  cpiestions  dec  plw 
and  I  will  merely  cite  the  pro\inees  which  should  l)c 
allowed  to  be  the  masters  of  their  own  fate  :  Sehleswig, 
Finland,  Lithuania,  Poland,  Poseii,  (ialicia,  rkraine, 
Alsace-Lorraine,  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  and  Austiia"s 
Italian  provinces. 

The  position  of  the  Jews  must  also  be  made  secure  in 
the  countries  where  they  liaNc  lived  under  harsh  condi- 
tions, as  in  Poland,  Russia,  and  Rumania. 

13elgium  has  now  become  a  country  occupied  by  C.ermaiiy 
and  placed  \mder  German  administration. 

The  coming  peace  will  ]\a\v  no  meaning  wliate\er  it'  tla- 


344       Before,  During,  and  After  1914 

Congrtiss  wliicli  scttlts  its  tiiiiis  tluts  not  dtcidf  absolutely 
that  Belgium  must  rtiiuiiii  an  inckptiuknl  country  as 
bclort-,  must  bf  libcratnl  imnuiliatcly  liom  tht- Citrnuin 
occu])atit)n,  and  must  rtci  ivt-  lull  compensation,  so  lar  iis 
compensation  can  be  given,  lor  all  the  lossis  which  that 
imhapj)y  country  has  suffereil  thri^)Ugh  the  war.  lielgium 
was  attacked  by  Ciernumy  in  violation  ol'the  law  (»!' nations 
and  of  treaties  of  neutrality,  and  it  is  therel\>re  lor  Gernumy 
in  the  lirst  place  to  give  her  compensation,  liut  the 
Entente  Powers  must  also  be  held  liable,  lor  they  under- 
took to  safeguard  Belgium's  neturality,  anil  her  resistance 
against  the  German  invasion  arrested  in  a  great  nu  asure 
the  invasion  of  France  anel  ga\  e  that  ce)untry  anel  (ireat 
Britain  time  to  gather  strength,  unj)rej)ared  as  tlu  \  were 
for  the  war.  Belgium's  integrity  is  of  vital  importance  both 
to  France  and  Great  Britain. 

The  utterly  false  c()ncej)tion  toe^k  roe)t  in  (iermany  at 
the  beginning  of  the  war  that  the  xc/kiU  coutitnj  ik/.v 
thrtattmd  and  that  it  was  a  matter  e)f  lighting  foi'  the- 
tdistcnci  (jj  titt  (Urinaii  iiatitju  anel  for  its  ci\  ili/.ation.  which 
the-  Gernums  were  bounel  to  elelenei  as  one'  man.  We-  are 
witnessing  here-  a  psye-hological  phenomennn  which  is 
easily  explaineel.  The  most  cle-mentary  of  the-  psyehie- 
factors  is:  Germany  is  engageel  in  a  war  with  r(-eloubl- 
alile-  I'owe-rs,  tlu-  lathe-rlanel  is  threatc  nt d  ;  so  tliinking. 
the  whole-  nation  is  sei/.eel  ^^ith  j)atriotie-  (h  tensive  f«  rvour, 
the  e-iti/.e-n  eli>es  not  trouble-  al)out  the-  e-ausc,  but  ace-ejtts 
tin-   reason   suggesttel   to   his    minel    by    the-   Gii\  i  rimitnt  : 

We-  lia\(-  been  attacked.  '  The  n  e-ome  s  the  notion  that 
th(-  (  IK  ni}'  may  iiiNade-  the  country  it  the-  hope  of  \ictory 
docs  not  materiah/r,  and  this  is  lull., wed  li\  an  iiicrrasing 
anxiety  for  his  luHfrrial  exist  (lu-c,  and  In-  thinks  with 
trcjiidation  of  the-  imjKiiding  di  \asf;ition  ol  the  country 
and  th'-  SI  t   back  to  e-ulturc  by  distress  und  laniim-. 

liut  no  I'n-Ltr  lid.s  thraiti  tud  (i<  inkihi/,  no  one-  lias  wanted 
to  il,  slriiif  Itt  r  cull  art  .  (ierman\"s  culture-  is  gr(  at  l\'  \- aim  el 
by    t!i<-    whole    \sorlel,    e\(  n    by    Ik  r    prt  se  nt    <  n*  inu  s,    and 


Foundations  of  Pkace  Aitkr  thi:  War    315 

nothing'  could  destroy  it.  Hut  the-  wliolr  world,  lu.t  h.-r 
present  ciu-niits  ulonc,  deplores  that  this  exalted  culture 
has  been  tiirust  into  the  huck;^Mouud  iu  certain  eirel<  s 
and  that  (inotlitr  tendency,  that,  of  niilildri.sni  and  of 
aspiration  to  material  domination  inv»»I\  in;,'  a  thrt  at  to  otln  r 
nations,  has  obtained  the  upjxr  hand.  So  one  says  that 
the  German  is  a  barbarian,  hut  surely  it  is  the  univirsa! 
opinion  of  Kuroj)e  that  some  Hermans  ha\c  cduduettd 
themselves  as  barbarians,  nay,  as  Huns,  in  this  war,  and 
that  the  Chief  IIi;,'h  (onunand  has  ^fiven  voice  to  s<iiti- 
nients  %shieh,  coupKd  with  the  ever  (leniorali/iiu;  war 
fren/y,  ha\'e  brutalized  many  (ierman  soldiers. 

Can  peace  endure  ?  It  can  if  the  (iermans  etase  exclaim- 
ing :  ''We  are  the  st)ns  of  Goethe,  Schiller,  Kant,  and 
Fichtc,""  and  instead  seek  to  call  forth  the  sj)irit  of  these 
giants  of  German  thought,  to  vivify  their  ideas  in  a  new 
epocii,  to  banish  military  Ciermanism  and  thus  honour 
their  own  country  and  free  the  world  from  the  fear  of 
Germany  and  pave  the  way  for  renewed  sympatliy  for  the 
good  tliat  lives  in  Germany. 

Otherwise  there  can  be  no  peace  in  Eurojjc. 

Europe  will  not  be  safe  until  the  Cierman  Ixllicost-  spirit 
lias  lost  its  inlluenee  and  until  the  (ierman  States  jirevent 
absolutely,  ))y  prohibition  and  eontiseation,  the  dissemina- 
tion of  the  kind  of  literature  which  military  writers  and 
other  chauvinistic  authors  have  publislud  of  late  to  arouse 
warlike  tendencies  among  the  people  and  to  glorify  war, 
anduntila  wave  of  German  opin  it  )n  has  risen  uj)  against  them 
and  the  people  r^ali/e  that,  far  fr(»m  ha\"ing  learnt  sound 
connnon  sense,  they  have  surrendered  their  minds  to  the 
counsels  of  utter  ma(hKss, 

^Vhen  so  celebrated  a  man  as  Thomas  Maim  can  say  that 
eidiure  and  militarism  are  brothers,  that  their  idt  als  are 
identical,  that  they  are  founded  on  the  sauie  prin(,'ijile  and 
have  the  same  enemy,  peace,  tluii  surely  it  is  time  for  a 
new  German  race  to  emerge  and  to  exclaim  with  pity  : 
"  Poor  Mann,  his  senses  had  deserted  liim  !  " 

To     >hiximilian     Ilardin      who     de(  nied     the     (ii  rman 


31(3        Before,  Diking,  and  After  1914 

apologies  for  tlu-  violation  of  licl^nan  lu-utrality  unneces- 
sary and  \v1j()  said  :  ■  Wliy  all  this  talk  '(  It  is  brute  force 
that  diclntts  our  l<rus.  Has  tli<  stron<,'er  ever  yielded  to  the 
inipud(  nt  pretensions  of  the  \v(  aker  ?  "  this  new  (iernian 
race  will  say  :  '*  l"ie  on  you,  (Uitlaw  I  ^Ve  desj)ise  your 
brutality,  your  eynieisni  ! 

Ht-rnhardi's  teaehin*;  of  "  the  ntctssity  ojnar,  its  hhssiniis 
and  its  idtdlistn  "'  that  it  constitutes  an  indisjxnsahle 
aiul  heneficent  evolutionary  law  and  iiis  exclamation 
that  ■'  xcdr  is  ofdod's  Hulking  "  and  as  necessary  and  useful 
to  the  world  as  eatin<,'  and  drinkinj;,"  and  that  the  striving 
for  perpetual  pt  ace  is  an  unsound  "  utupimi  dreotn,"  will 
he  st ij^Muati/.ed,  like  the  rest  of  his  barbarous  doctrines, 
by  this  new  (iernian  oj)inion  as  unworthy  of  a  civilized 
nation. 

If  this  does  not  Come  about  there  will  be  no  peace  in 
Kuroj)e. 

No  durable  peace  can  be  exj)eet(  d  as  lont,'  as  the  liisuKircIc 
cull  (  ii(hir(  s  in  (iermany,  for  it  is  an  insurmountable  ob- 
stacle to  a  sound  public  outlook  on  (jutstioiis  of  inter- 
national politics.  I'ntil  this  cult  is  rtductd  to  a  minimum 
and  restricted  to  a  iiandful  of  chauvinists  wit  hout  jxilitical 
influence,  one  caimot  lio|)c  for  a  real  |)eac(  able  ^'rowth  of 
(ierman  culture.  I'nfil  then  liismarck  will  be  worshipped 
as  a  <,'o(l  in  spite  of  the  commandment  :  "'  Thou  shalt  have 
n<>}\c  ot|i(  r  Lr"<ls  l)ut  y\c."  I'Acry  lar^n-  town  in  (iermanv 
has  its  liismarek  monument  ;  the  lari,'est  of  all  is  in  Ilam- 
biiri:.  a  c'llossal  statue  \  isible  af  an  immense  distance  and 
measuriiiL' se\cn  nutrisin  In  itilit  *  an  imperator  arra\(  d 
in  armour,  his  e\ press i.  in  as  hard  as  t  he  stone  of  which  it  is 
fashioii((l.  the  hands  r«slini,'  on  a  colnssal  swurd.  lie  is 
(iermanv's  War  (iod.  and  i>ne  can  r<  ad  his  tlniutjlif  of 
thou;_'}its  :  /(//  hiti  dtts  .SVAtk/V.  Tin  ri-  In-  stands,  a  ;,'ra\(  ri 
ima<.'e,  hypnof  i/in;,'  his  w.ii-shippm^'  jie.  .pic  liki-  t  he  ^,'ods  of 
aiif  ifjuit  \-.  'J'Ik  ir  cult  is  (had.  m«ist  of  their  ehi(  1'  monu- 
jneiits  lia\'e  been  (lestroy<(i.  and  the  tim<'  will  conie  when 

•    I'ciir  t  mil  s  t  111    111  i;.'!  it   ( if  a  in;iii  >  ir  i  iilm  :ili\   si  \t  \  -  f,  mr  I  iiih  s  t  In- 
si/i    'if  a  luiMi.in  1m  in;^'.      'I'li<    jijiiitli  i^  ii\<  r  ^i  \i  n  iin  In  s  liij.'li. 


Foundations  of  Pkace  After  thh  War    317 

the  god  Bismarck  will  suffer  the  same  fate.     Then  peace 
will  reign  in  the  world. 

It  is  truly  astounding  to  hear  the  (iernmns  complain  that 
the  world  ivill  not  vuikc  room  for  their  enter|)ris(',  that 
England  stands  in  their  way  first  and  last.  Vtt  in  a  short 
time  Germany  has  aecjuired  very  considerable  colonies 
and  now  stands  third  ann^ngst  colonial  Powers. 

The  Cierman  colonies  oeeu|)y  no  fewer  than  2,0.'j8,548 
square  kilometres  or  live  times  the  area  of  the  Cierman 
Em|)ire  in  Europe. 

But  the  remarkable  thing  is  that  so  few  Ciermans  have 
settled  in  these  colonies.  In  IDl.'i  their  j)oj)ulation 
numbered  12,004,992,  but  of  these  12,040, 003  were  natives 
and  only  24,389  tccrc  Germans,  a  large  percentage  of  the 
latter  being  ollicials  and  soldiers. 

Here,  surely,  there  is  room  for  German  emigration  on  a 
large  scale,  a  movement  which  Germany's  over-population 
renders  absolutely  necessary.  Germany  must,  whatever 
the  upshot  of  the  war,  be  allowed  to  retain  her  colonies  for 
licr  own  benefit  and  for  the  salvation  of  other  nations 
from  fresh  wars  to  which  otherwise  the  prej)osterous  rate 
of  reproduction  in  Germany  must  give  rise. 

Germany  will  more  than  ever  be  menaced  in  the  near 
future  witii  the  (huiger  of  over- population  and  will,  at  the 
present  almost  constant  rate  of  increase  of  8G0.(t()0  ]>er 
annum  -even  if  we  allow  for  the  death  of  1,0()(),()()0  in 
the  war-  have  a  population  of  about  7,"5,()0(),0()0  in  ten 
years  and  about  83,000,000  in  twenty  years,  and  there 
are  but  two  ways  to  avert  this  catastroplic  : 

(1)  Emigration  on  a  large  scale,  and 

(2)  A  considerable  reduction  of  the  birlJi-rate. 

If  these  ends  are  not  achieved  there  will  be  no  jU'aee  in 
Europe.  In  that  case  a  fresh  war  cannot  fail  to  follow  in 
a  not  very  distant  future,  ]Hrha})S  in  a  decade,  for  the 
overcrowded  country  will  then  have  many  millions  of 
unemployed,  destitute,  and  famished  inha])itants  who  must 
in  one  way  or  another  be  provided  for. 


348        Before,  Dirinc;,  and  After  llHi 

Failing  war  with  otiur  Powi-rs,  tin  re  must  \)c  a  drvastat- 
inp  rtToluti(fn  with  civil  xcdr  in  (Jirmaiiy,  when  the  workers, 
reduced  t»)  de>>|)erati<»n.  will  linil  themselves  disapjHtinted 
in  tlieir  expectation  of  (ierman  jxtwer  and  |>rosj)irity. 
In  this  revolution,  wiiich  will  ])v  the  work  of  the  Socialists, 
till-  (iovernment  will  no  lonj,'er  Ik-  able  to  count  on  the 
present  universal  discipline  amon<;>t  its  soldiirs.  for 
millions  of  tluni  are  Socialists  and  Repuhlicans.  and 
millions  will  rise  to  ti<,'ht  under  the  stress  of  starvation. 
There  will  l)e  a  lK)rril)li- slauj^diter  of  millions  an  aj)j)alling 
r<action  from  the  state  which  has  jiitherto  obtained. 

Unhappy  (ierman  people,  what  is  to  he  your  fate  ? 


INDEX 


Aauksiiaa,    IT)  ;     fines   for   si)eaking 

Divnisli  in.  7") 
Alx^ken,  !>:>,  9t) 
AbriiMnni],  247 
Abyssinia,  Ismail  Paslias  war  with, 

142 
Adam  of  Bremen,  cited,  16 
Adolphus,  CJustaviis,  220 
Adrianople,   taken    by    Russia    1877, 

laO ;     ]x>ace    preliminaries    signed 

1878,     lliO;     ordnance    works    at, 

200  vote 
Atlriatie.  Serbian  hope  for  an  outlet 

on  the.  173 
.•Egean,  Bulgarian  post  on  the,  100 
Achrenthal,  Austrian  foreign  minister, 

l()r>-()8 
Aerial  warfare    on    non-combatants, 

292-94 
Africa.     German     East,     130,     1.37; 

North.   British  and  French  posses- 

si<ins  in,  142-47  ;   South-Wcst.  130  ; 

wells  poisoned  by  tiermans,  291-92 
Aftonbladet,  letters  to,  109  note 
Agadir,  the  Panther  at,  144-17 
Aix-la-('ha|X'lIe.  ]x\ace  of,  242 
Ak.-^akow,  tht>  Slavophile.  20 
Alans,  the,  29 
Alba.  Duke  of.  51 
'•  Albania  for  the  All)anians,"  173 
Albanians,     help     rendered     to     the 

Bosnians  by,  104 
.Albert  of  B<dgium,  appeal  of,  to  the 

Powers,    219;     on    the    neutrality 

question.  22.J— 26 
Alemanni.  the.  16,  2t>.  27.  30 
Alexander  I,  Peace  of  TiUit  1S07,  38, 

l,-)3 
Alexander     11,     dissatisfaction     with 

tlie  terms  of  the  Berlin  treaty,  119, 

162  ;    "Alliance   of  the  three  Em- 

]x^rors,"'    119,    ir)S-59 ;    assassina- 
tion, 120,  153-54 


Alexander  III  of  Russia,  French 
I)oli('y,  124  ;    S<^Tbian  |H)li(y.  17u 

Alexander  of  S<Tbia,  assassination  of, 
l'.HI3,  170 

Alexander,  Serbian  Crown  Prince, 
tele;;ram  to  tlie  Tsar.  185-H6 

Alexandria,  British  fleet  at,  142-43 

Algeciras  ('(invention,  the.  t<Tiris, 
145 

Al^reria,  French  jKjss<-ssion  of.  144  ; 
(lerman  designs  regarding,  2.">l 

Alliances,  value  of,  324 

AUize,  .M.,  French  .Minister  at  -Munich, 
191 

Alsace-Lorraine,  Bismarck's  tlesi^ns 
for  acquisition  of,  S()-87,  120-22; 
the  annexation,  105  ;  cession,  1(»S- 
109 ;  projxjsals  to  mako  neutral, 
117-18,  127-28,  149-.50;  question 
of  retrocession,  1.3ti  ;  hojx's  for 
r(>vision  of  terms,  148—49  ;  (ler- 
manv's  annexation,  a  cause  of  the 
World's  War.  244 

Alsations,  French  leanings  of  tlie,  115 

Alsen,  Island  of,  64 

Altai  Mountains.  28 

Amur  countrv  as  a  colonizing  terri- 
tory, 312 

Andrassy,  ("omit.  foriMgn  policy.  158— 
59;  a't  the  li-TJin  ('ouL'ress,  \*V1  ; 
the  elder,  on  the  annexition, 
qiintril,  178 

Andrassey.  .1.,  Wer  hnl  den  Krevj 
rerbrochen,  176-77,  197-98;  eit-d 
on  the  causes  of  the  war,  2<.HI,  2(i2 

Angles,  the,  17 

Anclo-German  rclatic^n«,  friendly 
visits,  139 

Anu'ra  Pcquefm,  South-\\>st  Africa, 
130 

Annam,  144 

Anton,  Prince.  SS-9<1,  92 

Antonovitch,  23 


319 


350  Indkx 

■'  Antwerp    against    Cir<>At    Britain,"  180-83  ;     evidence    o(    Gemiany'B 

223  int<nti<in   to   make  common  cause 

Arabi  Pa/iha.  revolt  of.  142-43  with,      ls:{-<t8;      war     on     Serbia 

Arajio.  I(i6  d.-Jami    July    2S.    1S8;     conct-al- 

Arbitrfttioij.  th<'  iilra  of.  34<>  -II  iu<'ut    of    h<T    warlike    intentions. 

An-     tl<'      TrioinplK'.     thf     ]>r'>iH.s.<l  llto  1>1  ;    war   iiia<l«-   inevitable   by 

man  h  of  (l<-riiiftns  thruui'li,  113  the     Note.      ll>2  ".•.">  ;       Andra.Kjiy's 

Anl.  tints,  thf.  121,  2'.«>  .lif>n..'    of    h'r    n.tion.     I'JT-US  ; 

Arv:cH.  2S  cpjxisition     to     arbitration.      HK*  ; 

Ario-<t«).  41  f' I'l.^'      '"      Sahindra.      2<il  ;       tho 

Arinv     K->tim;it«-K.     Fp n.  h.     rc<.iii(«<l  cvtiits  Icaiiinv'  up  *•'  ''"'  **'*''  with 

U-forv  war  of  l>7n.  liNi.  lo.J  l{u->ia.     2<'.>«'.;      C.reat      Britain's 

Ani'lt.  M.,  lis  tliilarati'iii.   2(xi  ;    rraiut's  reastni 

Aniim.  Bl-^inarck's  lrtt«r  t<>,  117  for  tin-  war  with.  2(M>  ;    the  mani- 

.\rthur.  I'ort.  wizure  of.  131  ffst<H-s.  2.'iS  ;    the  attackini;  {virty 

A.-Jilivxiatin;:  ^a.^-^,  u>e  of.  2iU  in  tin-  \\  orhi':*  War,  2t)t>  ;  atriK-ities 

A'-'iuith.    .N!r..   navy  si><<<  h   in     I'.Hl'.t,  in   ,"s<rbii«.   2SS  ;     th<'  teiL^-ion   with 

137;    .'•i»-.-.h  of."AiiL'ii-t  .3  ^").   I'.tl,").  Italy.  3(>.-) 

240;     attitiiile    towani-    intrrven-  .\u^t  rian  \\  ar  of   Succivsii.n  1741-4S. 

t ion.  242  241 

A'-.*'tiilily.    National,    and    thi-    jxin  r  A\ar.-.  the,  2'J 

n'-;."iiations.  K'S  Aviators.  French,  over  I5«lt;inn  tcrri- 

Atavi-in.  2«'>.s^i'.»  tory.  falx-  char;:*-,  217.  22!* 
Ath.n.H.  2M 

Atrcxitits.  (IiTimn.  iiianif-'.-to  to  tin-  Ba(<is,  I'ram  i",  41 .  .32<i 

(  ivilr/<<i       nations       "u,      271    72  ;  iiadcii  iimi  th<-  war  of  1  s7n.  I(i3 

r']»irt.>*    of    c.tb'ial    ( «'iMiiii-.-ion.'<    of  I5a<r.  22 

inquiry.  2"7   2'.t|  Biiudail  Baiiway.  thr.  1.37 

Attili,  iiiiiur.df.  L".!  B;ija/i.l    od.ci    t-i     Kussia.     If^O;      p'- 

Au/u-t,i.  gu.  .11.  7'.t.  IM  turn-.i  t.>  1  iirk-y.  ItW 

Au;:<i'<t.  iit-or;.'.  1  >uk"    of.  t',<i.  Cii,  t'..3  Uah-     iut.-r  ii.irli.iiu' ntirv    i  iin^;re..-""'S 

Au.-ust.iil..r-  I'alar.  .  r,7  h-M.  1  .-.1 .  3;t;» 

Au-.'u-t<iit»)r;.'N<><  r.  I'riiH  <•  of.  •»<•  li'ilkm.,    l'i«l.'ra<l.-    ii^  w-i]>;vi>.r.   artuli- 

.\u.-u-tus.  (l.f<at  of  th.-  (;.rinans.  27  nimU'l.  ls<i 

.■\\ii.  2!i2  I'alkan  alliann-.  tin-.  174 

.\u-t.  rht/..  3S  llilkaii  ,|u.>ti(.ii,  <tT.-.  t-  ..f  thr  li<-rlin 

Au-trilii.  ribbif-^  <.f.  32.".  n/.f.  'Ir-  .ily  cii  thr.  |C,1    «;2 

.\u^fri».  ri- i~MU  f,ir  ( i-rinany'.- a.'-.Hi-t  ■  Biltii     ]ii  i  .\  ii,i  •-.    ( i'rinimy'.'i   <l<>i:.'iin 

an.'-      a.'aiii  t       S.  rbi.i.       12;       t  h'  en     t  h'  .     12<i;      (i.naai)^     ix]*  ll'-.i 

]..irti'i'll    <'f     I'l'liiul.     .3.".   37;     a-^-  fr.nu.   ].".» 

M-I.'iii.  ••  Milt    \>>   I'liHuirk   ill    I'^ls.  r..ill  i..  in\iiiil.ii  i"ii  f'f  thr.  27 

(io  ;  jMiri.^  l'ru'--i  I  11.  liir  I  ><  !ilr~w  i_-  i;  ihi-.  !i|H.rt .  1  .Vt 

M-I~trl|l.       ^A    •'..'.,       t,->  ;         .111.1       thr  liipnuii.  ,    piT 

!>■   if.     "f     I'ri.u-.     7o  ;      uir    of  r..irl..iri.iii.-."  u-r  .  .f  1  h-'  trriii.  2'm 

|Ht.<iwith  I'tu-   1...  7^   si   ;     I  iirki-h  I'-uk-r.   i;.,    W  h-/   W  .    .[,,  ,it   M  .;r.  237 

t-vi!ipit|iv    in     I  s7''i.     1.'.^    ■>'.";     atiil  1' iru  i.ii-r.  .ii.     (  .I'.ii.l.    (  mun.  i -it  i.  >ns 

tie-   1  r.  If  V  ..f  >.iri  <t.  f.iii...  I'.o   <,|   ;  w,?h,  22.3 

fi'.upati"!!    <>{    I'-.-iiii    .ill. I     11.  r/i'-  I'lin.  \  ill  i. .    ..f.  2 1  "> 

foMna.      liil   ;       f..rin:it:..M     <.f     I  h.  li  it.  ,iiin  .  .  .1.  .1  t. .  Bu- ■;  i.   I  i.o   r,] 

Tnplr    .Milan.'-.    I'd    '.2;     t  h.     '■■  1'.  ihimI.i.  h.     1  ir      K  .    -t  .t.  ui'iit     rr- 

rup.iti..n    jHiJiry    puf-u.  .1.     1'.2   ''I  ;  ,.:ir.lin/    Ir.aty  ..f   I'r.i.u.-   r.  v:>i..ii. 

i.v.>tr[ii     i,f     i.'"V'  riiiii' nt.      i'.'i   <•!  ;  71 

aiiri'-xit  ;..ii    .if    I'-.'iui    Tinl     ll.-r/.  I'.ivini.    \.  !.-    f.t    Ai-rii.i,    7'.';     ■•Mi'l 

;-..v;iri,    |i'..'.  »")7.    1 7i'.  .    ~-!iV-    uti'l'  r  th.-    w.ir    ..f     |s7i'.     lo.'t  ,     .-in.l    t  h<> 

Au-triin     ri;l.'.      I'.s   7o  ;      Kii|,j,.,tt  Au-'ri^ii    N..!/-.      I'.U    '.t2  ;     .•!iir/'-'< 

bv  AH-'^nia    I'MJ    1.3.   17.3.    ><-ii.i.iii  a^.-iui.-t   I'r' n.  h  aiMii'-ii.  2 1  "^ 

I-.I).  V.    173   7i; :     f!.'-    ^r,l,i.-Mi    N..!"  I'.ivlo.  p..  || 

'.f   .bily    2.3.    I'.tl  I,    :iu.l    th'-    I'-I'ly,  Ba\  .■n'^t  luht  m.,-.  f'>n.,  iry  ..f,  2'.<2 


Index  351 

Bazaino,  MarBhal,  UH.  107.  100-10  llerlin  ConKrewt,  70,  119.  1(>(>-01 

Boftcorwficld,  F^ftrl  of,  108  IJcrlin,    N'aiKjlion'H   entry    into,    38; 

Bi'-ilitT,     J.,     'J'kf.     (Jerrnftn     CrinuJi,  induHtriiil        (Icvilopinitit,        132  ; 

274-7')  Sociiil   Democratic  Con^^rciw,   11)13, 

lU-liao,  fortrosH  of.  KH  3 ID,  323 

Ik'lfort.  si«'^'i>  of,  107,  112  H«>rlin  Treaty,    IHTH,  dituinirthed  r<1. 

llelK'Jan  at  roeitioH,  ohar^^eH  of.  277-78  vanttt^e.s     to     KuH-sia.     I  til,     244; 

liel^'ian    (Jeneral    Stall,    arihive.s    of  settlement    of    ito.snin    iiiul    Her/^-. 

t ho,  231  t'ovina,  KJI  ^;s  ;    re.sultH,  :y2 

lW>;ian  Neutrality  Treaty,  1!M)  IVrlin      I'niverhity,      reply     of     tlio 

"  U«-l^'ians,"     the     name    applied    to  students    to    tlio.st!    of    Strawhur^.', 

(Jernians,  2r»  H7-X8 

Ik'l^ium,    relK'llion    in    1H30    and    in-  Brrliner     lio^rsrn     Courur,     artieleH 

de|)endeni'e,     82  ;      neutrality     of,  qiiotrd,  227,  2!t."> 

82-84,    200-10  ;      (Jerinan    desi;;ns  !}•  rlim-r     'rii'jihlntt.     artieles     qitotfd, 

on,     121  ;      neutrality    ^,'uaranleed,  1,'>2,  22*)  27 

(lermany's  demand,  2<*'>-10;    me.s-  lirrnrr- Hnuil.  K\\i\  'llTt 

sage     from     (Ireat     i?ritain,     210  ;  I}<Tiih;irdi.  (Jeiiir.ii.  (n-rni'iiiy  ttwl  ihr. 

(Jernuiny"s     future     intentions     re-  Xrxl      W'dr,     fjimli'l,     47,      l40-t2, 

^;ardinK.    212;     the    first    ••  Iiostile  14t)-47.    338;     tracliin^'s    of,    220. 

act,"  214  ;    the  (Jerman  ultimatutn  23(),    '2i\'.).    32."),    IMd  ;     <  ritiiism    of 

l)resent<'d    by,    210-17;     IJi'l^iium's  his  lM)ok.  2r)0 -.")l ,  2.')3,  2">."» 

reply,    217-19;    von    Sehoen    asks  l?<>rnstein.  Dr.  A.,  .322,  324 

for    Ids    pass]K)rt.'<,    217-18;    viola-  liernstorlT.  Count,  29."> 

tion    premeilitiited    by    (lermany,  ii^rtheiot.  M.,  191 

222  ;    remarks  of  Dr.  F.  Xaumann  !{<'stu(helT.  22 

on     l^'luian    neutrality,    227  ;     in-  IJethmannllollwci,',      on      thn     sub- 

friuL'ement  of  ]?<'iL'ium's  own  neu-  juL'ation  of  tlie   Slavs.    12  ;    jw'iey 

trality  aeeordinir  to  Hlume.  229-31  ;  towards  Eimlaiid  and  France,  140; 

tile  new  scluune  of  national  defi-nce,  visit  to  St.  Fetersburt'.  I  .M  ;    state- 

232;    designs    of   Louis  XIV,  241;  ment.s    in    the    White    I'ook,    19.'); 

restoration  under  |X'ace  of  Aix-la-  his     cc)nditions     for     co-ojvration 

rha{H>Ile,    242;     her    duties    as    a  witli      FuLdand.      190;       and     the 

neutral.    26()  ;     crimes   atxainst   tlio  IVdj.'ian    Neutrality    Treaty.     199  ; 

laws    of    war.    270-77;     German  on  the  situation  at  the   Ix'udnnini; 

atrocities    in,    279-8.");     rcpirt    of  of    the    war.    2l>2-3  ;     in\    Russia's 

the  Rockefeller  Trust.  2.S1  ;    future  preparatory      military      measures, 

intej.'rity  of.  343-44  204-5;       denials     of.'     2n7  ;       tho 

Btd^rade.    I'niversitv   of,    2.3;     bom-  demand  on   IVdL'ium.  209-11  ;    tho 

barded  July  29.  ISS.  200  bid  for  Knt'land's  neutrality.  211- 

Bonedetti.     Frencli     Amlrtssador    at  13;     and    Sir     Edward     dischen, 

Berlin,  Bismarck's  jiroposal  to,  8:5  ;  212.    327  ;     reply    to    LuxeinburL's 

reports  of,   quoffl.  8S  ;    mission  to  Prime   Minister.  21.")  :    the    "  .~<(Tap 

Kim:    William.    91-94;     the    Ems  of    Fajx^r "    statement.    22(1;      on 

ttdcLrram.    94.    9.").    1(^2;    return   to  the  violation  of  l.\ixcml>ur_'.   221- 

Faris.     100-1;     report    on    arma-  22;     defence    of    the     .attack     on 

ments.  104  TJelgium.  224;    and   Britain's  ulti- 

Bonediet.    Pope.    Litluianian    appeal  matum.     23t).     240-tl  :       on     tlie 

to.  28t)  causes   of    the    war.    2.")'^  -.Mt.    27'')  ; 

Berchtold.    Count,    on    the    Austro-  sayimrs  of.  qur-fil.  293-l>4 

Huntrarian  Note  to  Serbia,  184-8.")  ;  Binist.    anti-Prussian    policy   of,    1 '">8. 

letter  to  Count    Szapary.    187-88;  203 

apjx^al    to    Cormany    on    Russia's  Bibatch,  lt>4 

mobilization,    188-89;    message  to  Bigamy  IcLrali/cd  in  lt).V\  .")"> 

Sir    Edward    Grey.    189-90;     dis-  Birth  strikes.  323 

cussion  of  tho  Serbian  Note.  104;  Bismarck.  Princo.  ori-iii.  42  ;    f.irriijn 

Note     to     thp      Russian      Foreign  ]-)oIioy.   4.3.   24"^  ;     Polish   policy   of 

Minister,  205-G  Germany  l->efore  his  time,   .■)3-.")5  ; 


3r>2  Indkx 

the    man    of     "  B1>'<h1    ami    lrt«ii,  "  lloMiia,  Austria's  annexation  of,  150, 

61-02.     250-51  :     H^Jlertiont     and  lt5_M)7.  174-7t).  19«J-2tX»  ;    ivipiila- 

Rrmint-iCfncfi,   G'2-~*'>^i  ;     hatn-tl    of,  tiun,     157     noir  ;      nfornis,      ItX)  ; 

in  SwMen,    <>s  ;    ami    Artul>'  .")  of  Turkish  8iiz<'rainty,    ItU  ;    fi^htin^; 

the  r«'ac-.-  of  I'ra^u"',  O'J.  7(»  ;    an«i  in,    1«V1  ;     tho    <l.in;:<T   from,    172  ; 

I>r.  CJofTkfii,  72-73  ;   anil  Nu|x)li(>n  Austrian  (»  cupatinii  a  caus««  of  tho 

III,  7S,  83  ;    j.lani*  for  thr  Franco-  war,  214 

(.rt-rman    War.    SC>,    l»l  ;      M'tywir',  lV>th.».     C.'ii.ral.    l.tt«r    to    Colonel 

Mi-^7  ;      on     th<-     randi.iitiirf     of  Franc  kf.  2'.»2 

rruv<-    l>-oi>oll    of     Hoh.n/oll.rn,  IVnthnia,  Culf  ..f,  32.->  mi/*- 

K'v-'.M*  ;   otT.-rs  to  n-sii;n,  '.•2,  1».>-",Mi  ;  Ikjiirlmki.  1m7 

and  (Iraniont.  IKJ  ;    for;.'<ry  i>f  the  liourd'viu.    L..    I.'/n^toire    <l    Iri    hf- 

Knis  t»l>-^'rain.  1M-I<>;j  ;    tin-  jxnoo  ^<^l»rM,  qai>t"l,  4  -*> 

netriitiations.  In.'};   Favn's  in-^otia-  llourL'tt.  1  >r.  H..  work  of.  3(K) 

tinn.-*  with.    !•»•;,   l(ts  ;    and    rhi«rs,  iirandcnhur.:.  17 

lu7  ;  ix'li.  V  aft.-r  Frankfort .I'lS-'.t  ;  lirand.-nhiiri;  Cat.-,  lii-rlin.  2.'i(»  not/- 

ojiinion     of     thf    HraMii'iihur;:irH,  Brandtnl)iir^;crs.  thi-,  and    Histnnnk, 

llH;    his  d'inand   r<--irdiii_'   l'ari.-i.  1  1(» 

112-14;      l.-tt.-r    to     Ariiiiii.     117;  lU.in.-n.  t  ra.!.' of.  i:{2 

P'j'ctioii    of   th''    n-utral    jirojio-al,  Hrmtano,     272  ;      and     th<-     (Jorinan 

llS;       1  r.  ator      of      th.-      Franct-  l.irthrat<-.  iU'.t 

!{u--.ian  Allianr.-.    lis  -jn.    12:J  2.".  ;  Brid;;. -.  (  oh.n.l.  22  I 

th''rrii>l-- Alhan..-,  1  I'.J -:.'«».  l(il  -112  ;  i5rix.        IhriMior.       i.rot.'-t       a-ajn.-t 

the      S<-]it«nnat<'.      12<>   22  ;       fn-.-li  l'r\i>sian  t  realm' iit  of  S<hl>swi^'.  7t) 

att'-mi't.f      on       i-Van. .-.       |J2   23;  l'roL'H'-vill'-.    M.    i\<\    m|x-<i1i    on  thi' 

HiN-.-<h<s    in    til'-     11.  i(  h-ta/.     l^'^^.  Nat  ion  al  Srvi.  .■  A<t .  r/i/o/.  ^/,  224  '2r> 

125-2'"';     an.l    (J'-rmaius    iiilonial  lirui  t-rian  t  riU',  tli.'.  2ti 

jH.li.y.  131  -.32;    th-'  li-Vliii  Tr.  ify,  Hnino.  1 1 .  .M 

li',2  ;      sayin.:      of.'     ./ ,-.r.  /.      I'.i2;  F.ni--1-.    .  onf,  r.  nc-    li.  Id    in.     !<is  ; 

evil  of  111-   ( i'riii  mi-m.   22";     pro-  ]iov.r'y  in.  2^o  >] 

voki-r  of   th'-    Irani"  t  i-rmaii    War  H;i'l..\v.     I'riii'.-.    on     tli--     W  r.-.  li.-n 

of  ls7i",  2t4  ;    hi-  -iiii-t'  r  inlhun' >-,  atliir.  .'.<■. 

34»i  I'.ull.;,  lo2 

Hithvnia,  d.-vantat ion  of.  27   2s  I'.ui\i'l.  22 

Bla.  k  S«-a.  21)  liiil.aria.     Ilu-ii     and.     21   ;      r. v.lt 

I'>la«' hko.  43  in     [^l.-.     l.'.T   ,".s  ;      ind' |"  nd- ii.  .  , 

Hl.-'-k.  Dr.    K.  I...  .'I'itii.'tis  of.  77-7"/.  liK'  <.l 

2t7  -}'.»  I'.iil.aiiaii-.      .li-t  rihiit  ion       of.       I'.t; 

lUolini.  .««liooima-t«r.  "•">  .dii'  itp.n    aiiioii/    th.-.    23;     haii'ls 

I'lum.-.    W.    voii.    ■•[>•■. -.h    of.    ijift"!.  of       I'.uL-.irim       vojiint.  .  r-      a--i.-t 

22'.»-3i  itu~-ia.  Is::,  i.v.t 

r.liim.ti»h  d.  < '.'■ii'  r  il,  lo'i  I'.uii-' n.     '-ir     M  oirr  .-     .!•■.     and     th'- 

i;..'    a<  io.  41  \ii-rn  in  \.  t.  .  I'.d    '.12 

I'.i' if.  !.■  .  iV' ti' !i  W  ir  Miin-i'  r  ls:o.  I'.i'..--.      Mr.     .n      I'-Lunn-     n' u- 

!•'•    JiMi  ;     I'.U'L'  '   "f.    |ol  t  r  ditv  .  -JJs 

r^.d  iliolf.   22  r.'ir,  nil  !i  i;i-.     :itl».  k-     "II     liiui,     .3". 

r^.h'-niii.  i:  ;    ^)1'  -^i  ail  i.  3:  :  I  .'•  ■  L-  1  i<; 

'.f.    lii'.t;    I  .TMiaiii/ iti.ii  ..f.    Ii'l'  r.  i:     Mii-iN  .  I   -iiify  -f.  2.'.". 

K.h'  iiiian  Nlii-  mil.  t!i--.  22  f.^i'ii-,  .l--i,n.  213 

I'^.i.l'ti.       lo.ilit        I'.i-mar- k.       i!ivd--  r.  i'-.  h.  ....!, if',  n.   lo    »l 

(H.v.-rnor  (;-!i'-ra!  of    M-.i.  ■  ,  jo;,  r.i-ii.     \I--rii/,     |.iii.Ii.  ai  p  iH    of     Hi,. 

Ffiiil.-^      I  ■  ■III  aiiiiii,-       lix.;    •;■      >•  i   •  -.  iiivnk-    V- »'|.  ■  r  «,  1.2,  '^•''    '^: 

u-.-  of.  2'.U  Ivi-.-.     jir      K  .    'li.Tis    to    f..iind    a 

1',..:,  ipirli-i  -.  ).-'li.  \  'd  ih'  .  M2  r^.h-li    I 'in\  .-r -il  \  .  .'.: 
l',..rl'- HIT.     NiMonal     A   -•  niMv    i  on- 

v.-n.-d     ii,     |os  ;      «.   it     ..f     Fr.  ir  h  (    MiMsovp    .  •  .ii-t".rator.  1  s^i 

(  .ovrii-;!'-.',  232  I    r-\r.  >.■:!!<■■   H  I'r ,  ,-,f<,.',   1 :.,  :'4    27 

I'-.m^iiai,-.    I't  (     I'.d-r.   II.    n 


Index 


.'io.'J 


Cambon,  Jules,  ami  tho  dixlaration 
of  von  .Jaj^ow,  lUl-'Ji  ;  lt!tt«>r 
from  M.  Viviiwii,  21(5;  dispatchiiH 
(juoUhI,  2r)r>-^")(5 

Camboti,  I'luil,  183.  liiMl 

(!ainp()  Forinio,  I'c.ict^  of,  H4 

Capo  t'olony  linking  ii[)  witli  K^'vpt, 

i:}7 

Caprivi,  ("lianccllor,  oo 

Caratalla,  (Icncral,  27 

C^rlsruhf,  217 

Caniot,  decorated  by  Alexander  111, 

121 
Carol     of      Rumania,      warning      to 

llelgiuni,  22"> 
Caroline  IslantlH,  130 
Carthage,  devastation,  30,  280 
Caspian  S<mi.  2'J 
Catalaunian  Fields,  20 
Catherine  11  of  Russia,  ',]'>,  ir>3 
(^ato,  ({ noted,  250 
Caucasus.  2'J 

Celts,  migrations  of  tho,   1(5  ;    inter- 
mixture with  the  (Jermans,  24,  2.1 
Central      Kur{)|x>an      Confederation, 

scheme  of  I'rofossor  Liszt,  3:5(5-38 
Chalons-sur-Marne,  29 
Champigny.  Battle  of,  107 
Chamjw  Elyseos,  an  incident  of  1871, 

112 
(^harlemagne.  empire  of,  17 
Charleroi.  22(5 
Charles  V  of  Sjiain,  91 
Charles  XV.  (52,  (5(5 
Chatti.  the,  1(5,  2(5 
Chililren   and    tlu;    war,    teaching   of 

J)r.  Schepp.  2(51 
China,     Hunnish    raids    on,    28-29; 

Em])oror  William's  threat  to,  28r) ; 

opinion  of  Eurojxvm  culture,  302  ; 

Japanese  negotiations  with,  308-10; 

infant  mortality  in.  310 
Chipka.  Hiittle  of,  159 
Chlorine  gas.  use  of.  291 
Christian  IX.  (il,  (52,  71 
Christian  C.ermanism,  40-52 
Churchill,     Winston,     Dr.     Zimmer- 

mann  on.  138 
Cicus.  27 

Cimbri.  migration  of  th(\  27 
Cirey.  atrocities  at,  273 
Clermont.  Council  of,  1095.  257 
Coalition,        tiie        fourtli.        against 

Napoleon.  38 
Cohen.  atteni])t  on  P>ismarck"s  life.  79 
Cohn.  F.  C.,  42 
Cohn,  Professor  H..  42 
Colonies,  German.  130-31,  318.  ,347 


Commune,  outbreak  of  tin-,  M/ir(  h  is, 

1871.  109 
Cornmissions      of      inijuirv,       ollicial 

re|M(rtH,  277  -9t 
Comte,  .\..  41 
C<)ndorc<-t,  41 
Cong.-r,  Mr.,  259 
Congo,  l'ren<  h,  144—1(5 
Coni^TcHses,     int4T-p.irliamentiirv,     at 

JUle,  151    52,  339 
Constantiiu!  the  (ireat,  2H 
( 'on-itantinopli',     eonfer'-ncc     f)f     tho 

(ireat  I'owers.  Ih7<i,  I.V.»;    Rus.-ian 

march    on.    1S77,    159 -4H);     object 

of  Russia  and  .Austria,   172;    Ijom- 

bardment,  1453,  2'.>0  uolf 
Conlt'injM/rnnj   liiriiw,  article   quntiil, 

151 
('o|wnhaj.'en  Univi'r>ity,  iiit<Tii.itionil 

law  deleted  from  studies.  302 
Copt-rnicus,  22 
Corinth.  28 
Corneille,  41 
Corrosive    li(piid,    si)raying    with,    a 

(lerman  inv<'ntion.  290 
Costenoble,  (leheimrat,  (53 
CoulmiiTs,  1()7 
('ourirr-Ji>l'jr,  tlie,  279 
Cracow  Unisvr.-ity,  22,  109 
( 'remieux,  100 
Crispi.  renewal  of  the  Triple  Ailiajice, 

123 
Croatia,  jK'oplc  of,  172-7(5 
Crimstadt.      visit      of      the      I'n-ui  h 

s(pia(lron.  lS9l,  124 
Crusade,  the  First.  257 
Cyzicus.  Island  of,  28 
Czeclis    distribution.    19;     literature 

of     the.     22  ;      (.icnuanization     of 

Kohemiau.  109 
C/.clokowsky,  22 

Dniji  nt    Syhtttr,    statements    in    the. 

220,  277.  284  ;    account  (if  tlie  loss 

of  the  Lu-<it'tnia,  29(5-97 
IkiiUj    SfV-t    condemnation    of    the 

luns  telegram.  98-99 
l)almatia.  jteople  of.  172-73 
Danes,     origin.      10  ;       nuiub'T     in 

.■^chlcswiL'.  73  ;  i)«'(.iple  foriiiin_'  the 

Danish  nation.  1 1 
Dano-Cernian    War   of    1.^04.    59-OS, 

243,  20 t 
Dant,\  41 
Dardanelles,   the    Kii-'lish    F!c.-t    ^mt 

to,  1878.  100 
Daviirnon.  M..  declaration  of.  2o9-lO. 

214 

Z 


354  Index 

l»avis,  H.  W  .  ('.,  237  Khrlioh.  Profi-ssor.  43 

iKkiu-o  tax,  (Ji-rman,  ITkI  v"»4  Kilnmch,  (.5 

IH-Lssmaim,  l!7-  Killi  1,217 

Ik-lbru"  k.  I'roff.-vsor,  |>ruf«»mi"i>  of.  7.">  K1U-,  .MiihlK-,  jkoiiIo  of  thf.  17 

l)<-lcA.s.s<-,  ( rt-riuaa  {x>lny  of,  144  KlizJilxtli.       iilltatu-c       with       Maria 

l)«n»linn>ki,  22  I  Iup  mi,  1.>3 

l>«inoii<'lo;:v,  3<'3  EHl-*,   Hjim  lork,  on  Jiijwins  j>oj)(ila- 

l)tnf.rt.  »  ..'lorv  1.  lo7  tioii,  31<i  ;    on  llu-sui  «,  312 

lM-niii:irk,   thi-    I'iino-Ccrnian   war  of  Kmi^'ratioii  frotn  (U-rnifiny.  ;U7   19 

1W4,    .'('J-Ia-s,    243,    2t>4  ;      ann«-xa-  Kinn    ti-li^'rarn,     lii[<niarckn    forj^rry, 

tion     of      .Vlil.!,wiv'-Hol.-ttin      l-y  yi,  '.M    lo3 

rniN^ia.  ti4i-77  ;    .'■lii|>H  lo^t  liy,  21*4  ;  l-liiv'land.    famous    nainr«,    41  ;     as    a 

an<i    thi'    Kuro[«-un    ('onft<l(  ration,  coluni/in^;    l'ow«r,    Kk>-31  ;     occu- 

33tJ  patiun  of   \\  .1  hai-W  «i.   131  ;    ik-T- 

1><  nihur^'.  l>r.,  on   l{»lk'iuin's  iKutrai-  many  s     h<  nditary    •■m-my,     133; 

Uy,  227-2S  nitiK.sity    for   a    lar>;«-    navy,    137  ; 

I)»rvan,  Srliian  I'rincc,  17  the  ntpproch'  rwnt    with    l-'rancv  in 

1>.  Mart's.  32.  41  l'.t03.    J37  ;    the    i  nt«nt.-,     143^4; 

••  l)<uts<h<r  lUiml  fur  Mutt.r.M  hufz.,"  tl<«t  wnt  to  tho  l)anian.lics,  1n7j>, 

31t>  ItKl  ;       attituilo      towanls      Russia, 

Ihut^chr  KulouiitlVtrftn,  ihi.  \:>A)  lh7S,     IM);      vi.w    of    tli.-    Austro- 

IhxtUrJilaiul  uud  d>r  \V>ltkT>t'j,i<r\.k\vs,  HutiLMrian    Not*'    to    Srliia,     1  s3  ; 

Cklfil,  22h,  27S  thrvat   of  i  ivil   war  in    l;tl4.   2t>l  ; 

I>uvna,  linipi"  of,  2S  war  di-i  hiri-d  a^'ainst  Austria,  2<»()  ; 

l>ijiri<s  of  (ItTinan  holdirr.s,  extra*  ts,  neutrality  liojnd  for  hy  Clirmany, 

273-7.")  211    13;     (Itriuany   lalicd   u]MPn   to 

1  )iiliri't,  4 1  wilhdr.iw    hir    ultiinatuiu    to    IJt-l- 

hit  n(  ut   (nn/Tdtinn.  'Mi\  i.-iuiu     I'V,     2 1 '.»  ;      sulijMisitl     Hccrrt 

Ihc  l'o.il.  arti<  !••  nn  tin-   I'cili-h  qui--  IhI.i.ui  .ilti  ihk  nt   \mi1i.  223.  22l)  ; 

tion,  .')7  why   -ii'    i  nt-ri  d  tin'  war.  23.'.  43; 

1>>,    ^ViA-h'.  i\ri\i\<-  q'K.t.l.  \:\s  iiiaiuf'    t..    of    til.'    l{nti>li    m. n    of 

y>i<  Z'(i-iin//,  artii  li-  (/iio/<'/.  233  mhiki-,  2.';7  ;     lvir<.|«Hii  (kiIuv  of. 

1  toiMitian.  27  211   ;       (ruihy      m       liidin.      2<>N  ; 

l)>.ni.'ol.i,  Is'.rt;.  143  jii  ,  U-' >l  id   st.irMii;.'   out    (l.Tinany, 

lio-tot-'-v.-ki.  22  21tS   ;•'.»;  till-  t\\i>»lidd  svst.iu.  314 

I  ir>  m1"  n  Hy..i' iu(  Kxliiljitii>n.l'.tl  l.iJIii  Fjuli.-li  nition,  ra.  .^s  *  ..iiii>,.suik'  tin-, 

hrusus,  Iti  1(1 

|)ui  ;irii'-.  ( i'li'  ral.  <  onv'rsatii.ii- witii.  I\ii!iimi>.  .-a.  kiiu'  'd.  2.S 

223    24  Midiu.iiiii.    <1.    A..    Sun    <d>*r    v<\t:r, 

l>u.  liin-ki.  23  132  f.'./. .  13  J    3.". 

|)u(  ri.t,  t.i  II.  r:il.  n7.  IhT  Kriju.  lim-.  \>>v.u  nf.  :;:;;» 

liuiinin--,  .M.,  I'.d,  2"Hi  l".r/l.  r;.'  r.  \H..  2ii2 

1miii[»  1,  71  Iv-imm. !>.•>•.  (i'riii.iii.  in  I'rancc.  1«  fori- 

1> ,-!-:  >i/;ii.  thr.  17^  ls7o.  Id'.t   1(1 

I  >u%.  riic.j-.  '.(2  Kthno/riiplii.  .il    Kxlul.it ii .n    at     .Mos. 

In  i.l-,1.  1. 1.  t,7  <  ow.  lM.7,  2"! 

I'.ti'  HI..-.  M  .  2.VJ  :.:. 

Kasikks  Q'j.  -;i.  !i.  ill  •,  2<i  I'.U'  ki  n,  J72 

Kdw.ird      \ll.      \i   It      1..      IV'  -id'-nt  I'.ii.-.  Ill'  .    I'.nii'n— .    :iiid    ill.-    IVan..'- 

I/.iil- t     III     r.xi.i.     1.17;      t!..'        rn-  (,.ri!i  111  \\  ir.  s'.».  '.ij.  '.C;.   1(mi    1ii| 

Mr.  In..-'    i-.li.  y.d.   1  lo.  :;:'.7  Kill,  ni'ur,'.  A..   12 

Va  .!•  11,  1  .  van.  J.  ti4  r  of.  .;-;.. f-  /,  22'.i  liur.  j-  .  |...i.ul  iti -ijitiMi.  ,.  31("    l'.» 

V.,^i..  t.  I.  inn/"  .d.   Id  ■     I'.vt.riiiiii'  iit\ir.     d-  .  r.  .■  .f.   Is 

ll.'Sji).   liiikiii/  u|>  Willi  (ai-'  (  ..'..•ny.  I'.'.l.iu.  3s 

i;;7.     .  •  inii.uiip  aiii.n    Willi    IndiA,  I  .•,■!..  n.  M.  .i'ln.iii.i  .f.  214 

i:;7  ;      tin.iii'  ill    <  ■.Ti.iiti..n.".     Is'.'.t. 

M2  .     i;iijL-h   a   .  .  lidaiii  V    in    1  ss2.  1' MMIKUIiE.  ( I.  ii- r.il.   Iii7 

1 1;;                                  '  /'.i/i'.j.  lofts  <d  tli.-.  2'>J  'X> 


Indkx  a." 


Falkeno^f(,   Ilaron  von.  Was  wird  au«  falsity  of  Gorman  chiirt"«.  li  I H   19, 

lUMfTfrt  Koloniin,  WVl  noU  'J^.'V-'JO,      '2'M),      2'A.l   A.i  ;       Sir      K. 

Kiilkcnhayii,    (H-niral    von,    on    (Icr-  tlrt-y'B  aj;r<<-rii<tit  witli,  2!J'.I  ;    pIji- 

niiiny'M  |)osition,  'Jolt  tions     with     Kiii/liiiiil,     ItitiK    17'»2, 

Fa.ihodiv,  im  idcnt  of,  IIIJ -t-J  241-42;      (;<riiitin     linit.ilitu  h     m, 

I'avrf,   .lulis,   on    l\w   dfclaration   of  2HI-H2  ;      jMjpiihit ion,     .'HI  ;      thr 

war,    102  ;     nc^'otiationH   witli    l5iH-  two-tliiidn-n  Hyht<iii  in,  .'{1.'{-1  1 

niarck,    KMi,    l(l,S,    112;    opiK)Hition  Franch'-f 'omt<'.  121 

to  tlu' war,  111!  Francis- l'"i'niinan<i,    iiswihoination    of. 

Federation,  Tn-aty  of,  H<)  \:,t,,  17;»  S2,  21» 

Ft'ist,     Dr.     S.,     Kidlur,    Ausfrrritinuj  FraiK  is-.Jowpli,    Krri|HTor,     '  Alliatu  i- 

und  llirkuiift  ilir  In<l<>'jrrrn<uirii,  18  of   tin-    tlirci-    Kinixrors."    l.')S  .')'.»  ; 

Folinski,  22  ii(ili<iiiiun     [K)li(y,      l<><»  ;      fi-r-itrn 

FtTch,     Joli.,    on    till'    liniitation    of  jxdicy,   l<i2  ;    aiincxatiDn  of  lio.sniii 

families,  ;{22-2.'{  and     ll(r/«'),;<)vina,     l(ir>  «;7,     175; 

Fi'rdy,   II.,   |>sciidonym  of  A.   Meyer-  letter  to  .Stiirj/kli,  2<>2 

hof,  ;{14  mid  not,'  Frarx  k,  l)r..  view  of,  l."il 

Fernau,    II.,    J>ie  frduzn-ii-^rlif    Ikino-  Frrincke,  Colonel,  the  poisoned  well.s, 

knitir.  \M  2'.»2 

Ferry,  Jules,  KXi,  11!$,  114  I'Vanekenstein,    note    from    his    dairv 

Ficlit^'.    the    philosopher,    Mcsmiji'.   to  jjiihlished.  K7 

tfif  (irrmnu  Xalion.  1S()K,  38,  40  Franco-!  lerm an   A^'reenjent   of    lltO'J, 

Fi<j(iro.     KSDl,    article    on     Bismarck  14") 

cited,  42  Fran<o-(;erman    War    of    ls70,    H.'>  ; 

Flosch,    Trofessor    Max,    PraHitnlion  J5ismarck's    aim,    H.'>-,S.S  ;     s(  heme 

y.  Friiiuiilcrdnl:  fieilrn,  V.i,  'Ml.  'i\r>  of    the    iMiipnss    Kn^'enie,    Mt  'J<t  ; 

FMourens,  Russian  ])olicv  of,  124  the  candi<iature  of  Prince  lycopold, 

Forkidi,  Battle  of,  104"  '.K)-<U  ;     forgery   of   tlie    Kms   tele- 

Forel.  41  gram,  i>4-lOO  ;' return  of  15<nedetfi 

"  Fortschrittspart<'i  "'     or    '"  Fortsch-  to    Paris,     100  .'!  ;     results    of    the 

rittlii'he  N'olkspartei,"  45,  3:{'J  war,     lit;}-");     the    annexation    of 

i'or»m.  the.  article  (/»o/*v/.  2:52  Alsace,      lO.Vi);      the      feeiiriL'      of 

Franco,  famous  names,  41  ;   Na|>oleon  vcnucaiuc,    iO'.t-lt;     FriuK-tif' ur-< 

dejxjscd    and   re])uhlic    proclaimed,  of  the,  270 

lot);     the    feelinu    of    revcnL'c    in.  Franconia.  dcpf>pulat ion   in    1(>1S-4S, 

after  1S70,   119.   120.   147   .')1  ;    the  3.$;    Franconian  Diet.  1(3.")0.  IjiL-amy 

war    crisis,      1SS7.     120   22;       His-  hv-zalizcd  hy,  I},") 

marck's    fresh     attempt.     122-23;  Franco-Russian  .\lliance,  the,  1 1 S-20, 

as    a    colonizim^     Power,     PiO  31  ;  123-2"),  12S,  1,"4.  244 

occupation     of     Hai-Choau,     131  ;  Franc-tirfurs,     of     Franc(>,     275-70; 

tlie    entente    with    Kn^'land,     137,  of  lieL'ium,  27S 

140-44;      the     Fashoda     incident,  Frankfort,  i'eace  of.  Ins,  1 17,  128 

143  ;      now    colonial    policy,     144  ;  1'"ranks.  the.  17.  20.  30 

tlio  Aijndir  incident.    144—47  ;     Dr.  Frederick  1.  35 

Zimmermann's     indictment.     147  ;  Frederick     II,     the     Crcat.     on     the 

view      of     tlie      Austro-lltin<;arian  object  of  war.  quot'd.  3-4  ;    I'Ahti- 

Note    to    Serl>ia.     1S3  ;      the    new  vuichiavtl.  nt>d,   2()   27  ;     partition 

Army     Hill    of     1914,     201,     253;  of   Poland   nnder,   35-37:     on    the 

niobiii^.ation.  204  ;    reasons  for  the  sanctity    of    tnaties,    </   o.'"/.    221  ; 

war    with    Austro-Hun;,'ary,    200;  sentiments  of.  252 

protest    ai^ainst    the    tierman    ulti-  Frederick     111     and     l'.i~marck.     (1.3; 

matum    to    Helgium,    210-11;     re-  diary.    Dr.    (IrtTken's   extract.    72; 

solve     to     resjK'ct    the     neutrality  policy      tnw.iids      Alsa(  e-lxuraine, 

of   IVduium.  213;    euarantecs  ncu-  117    18 

trality     of     Luxemliurp,     214-15;  Frederick    \1I    (IVnmark)    and    the 

projiarations    on    tiie    Ltixcmbiirj:  Sch!cswii.'-lIolst<'in,     question,     IH', 

front.  215-10  ;    von  Schocn's  state-  62:     t'liarlcs    XV  s   jiromise   of   an 

ment  of  the  reasons  for  war.  217-18;  alliance,  00 


856  Index 

FrvJiTick.       own   Princo.  aft<'rwarJa  CnTman    Empirt-,    the   oKl.    di^s*jlv<Hl 

Frttitruk  111.  T'J.  1(4.  lit  liv   Na|H.l(oii,  38;    luiustilution  ul 

KniliTiik  Willi. im  1.  3.'.  tlu".  l>7n.  luy 

Fndirkk      \\  illi;iiii      111      ami      tlic  ( ii  rinan  l"(tlir.iti<«n,  tin  luw.  fiirmtii. 

Fourth  ('ualition  :ij.iiii.-,t  NajH.l.<in,  lMit>.  vi 

.is  (l.riu.wi    (;n;it    (l«  lural    StaiT,    jwm- 

Frt-^lrik>h.imn.  1.'4  j)hUt  d.  U71 

Fri.lnL-v-t.nl.  til  (l.rman  Ixm^nUinl-*.  lt> 

t'rfiMruitjf  /.'itui.'j.  nrtiili-s  ri/./i,  A'\  (iirinin  riiithii,  r.ii.-<  i  iitii]x>>iiii.'  tin-. 

71  lt»   11  ;     (i.riv.itinii    (.(    th<-    name 

FniK  }i     nation,     tin-,     racial     tln-ory  "  tlvrnian."    114  ;     niiiiit»r   of    »;<r- 

KiiK  <riun^'    the,    forniatK.ii    <•(    tho  rnaiiH  m  I'ari.- in  ls7n,  1  |«i 

ckuU,    N,    'J  ;     raovM   (.■<>Illl><)^inJ    the,  iM'rnian  Wnimii.  a]i}«- il  of.  l'7t' 

1(1  (itrvuitmi,   till-,   K  li.Mirr   of    lii>iiiar<  k. 

Fn-ni  h     K<-volution,    prini  iplt  •»    .>.iij)-  Its 

IxTt'-d  l>_v  Kant.  .»  "  (ii-riiiania,"     ^ijnitit  aiut-    of    t<rin, 

Frcvrinrt  the  itivint><'r,  work  of,  1((7  l.'»,  14 

FrK-^l.  A.   \J..L>i€}rttil'.u,sioirt<,\~[i  (1- rinani.>-ni,     I'anSlavLsni     and,     '21, 

Fri»-illanti.  3s  1,")!.'  .'>.');     rL-M-    of,    ;!s  ;     ('liri>tian, 

Froix-nius,      l.irut.-Col.,      (jirvmuy's  4<»  .'i2  ;     a    cause    of    tlu-    Wiirld'H 

Fat- Jul  Uuur,  -111  War,  1143 

Fu-kk-n,  3U'J  CtTniany,    attitude    towanls    Hus.sia, 

ll-lL'  ;   attitude  towards  the  Slav.s, 

(Iahih,  2'.t2  12;     inva.-ion    of    Koiiian    Fmpire, 

(;ahn.  Dr.,  38  'JS  ;      d-iN.pulation      in     IC.ls-Js, 

(ialc.  I)r.,  orijjin.  4 1  33 -3."i  ;      war     aLritation     in     1ns7, 

Cialiiia,    (Ifrinani/.ation  of   the   Sla\.-  iL'n   JJ;       c  au-i  s     of     the     arnnd 

of.   Itl'.l    7(»  ;   Jews  of,  l.'>7  jHH,-,      l.'ii   L'^;       e.ilonial     |).i^n<  s- 

tlahi  ia.  Ka.-,t<rn,  I'J  !-i..ii-.     i:>i>   31.   .117;    ovrr   p..pula- 

(ialil'-o,  41  tidii  and  ( .'ii-j  iju'  nt  coloniil  iMihc  y 

GallKlui.-*.  1:7  a  laiis,.  ,.(  ili,-  «.ir  of  l'.tl4.   Hi"  -«_'. 

(JaniU-tt-i.     altai  k     on    tlw    j;ovini-  :;i4,     3_'4   J>,     3J7;     tii^-      .lyiJir 

nunt,  lii2  ;    in   th'-  t.'"vi-nirn'-nt  for  i|u-tii.n.    Ill   -17.     Mcrt. '"    .Not.- 

national    d<f.ii,.-,    liMi  ;      w,,rk    of.  to      tlir      I'ow.  r-.      1  l."i  ;       Ku^-m  < 

lli7  ;   ojJiKvsition    to   th''  war.    113;  lariv       nl.vt  i' iii--       with.        \''l   .''■>; 

cahin-t,    lit);     projHi^al    n  ^ardiiiK'  format  ion    of    th'-     Tniili-    .\llian.  .-. 

I>>rrain'',  1  Is  ;    hojx'.-i  f^r  a  llii.-^uin  I'd    *'- ;      ^\\\'\<»ir\-     .Xu-trii-^     an- 

allianec.   IJl  ni-\ui..nof  l'«.-iua.  li'.7;    i-vult-n.  (  ,-< 

(l.i-^l'-m.  7'.»  of   h>r    int.iiM"n   to   in.ik'-   ...niiii'-ii 

(lauthi.-r.  .M..   I'.ili  of.   I'.Hi'.t,  ;{1.")  (Hus.-    with    .\u-tria.     1  s.'!   '.t-,  ;     d--. 

<,iZ'!t'     'I-     /.■lu-'inru,    arti'l'-    on    th''  niand  "ii  l!u-   1 1  to  ,  .■a>.' iiiMl'iii/iiu', 

<  .'rill  an    ittltM'i'-.  ri/,,/.    P.tS  IS'.t'.HI;      di..,.i\ ,  ,w  il     "f     kli..wl'd_-e 

(i'.-r.    b'.iH  '!'•.   i^rii'V   tow.ir.N   1)'  11-  (d    .\u-tri.in    Not.-.    I'.U  ;     an.i    th.> 

mark,  t><i  >>1  M-lN,ri-il.dity    f'.r    th.-     war.     !'.•'.>- 

(;<-lfk.-n.     I'r.     F.     H.,     o]ip<.-il  i.'ii     to  'J'x*.     L'l.i'  ;      how     -\f     <  oiil.l     hi\'' 

liiMii  ir.  k,  72    73  l>r.- viit.  .1  t  h.- w  ir .  L'"t.   ^  ;   .1.  inand 

<  I'lieiu   il.  1.'3)  I'll     1-  l.i'im     f.ir    a     fr.  ••     pi--i,'-, 

(i.-n-'Tik.  3o  -jK'.t    II;     h.p.     .(    Fii.  1  uid  -    ii'U- 

(i.  iitili.  41  irality,      211     i:t  :       .•■  ■  up.u f 

('•■or/'-    \'.   '  li-  iri  liii/    i»..n.  y   of.    1  In  ;  l.ux'  Kihiir.',      'J  1  1    .' 1 .'  ;        pr.  )>.ira- 

t.j.  .Tarn     on     th.-     ful.j' .  t     "f     t  !.•-  Ii-n^     ..n     t!i.-      l.ii  \.  ir.hur/     (r.'iif. 

S  rl.im  .N..ti-,   j'.H.  -Ji;,    lo;    t  ii.-  ult  iiu  it  .nu  t.>  I-  !.  run 

t  l<-or»''-,  l.l..-.  d.  on  iiit.r\.  Mil- ill,  Jl.'l  pr.    ■  iiN  d,     r-l.unii.     r.  pl\.    'Jl'. 

<.- j.id '■.  t!,.-.  L".t  17.    217    I'.t;     t!i.-    \i..!  itp.n  .  f    1-1 

(.-rniiii      atni\,      iii' r.   i--      m      l'^'^'^.  ;  lutii  pr.  n..  .lit  il.  .1,  2J2  ;  doI;'  ni  lu 

12'.    2s  .     .\riiiy    an.l    .\i\y    I'.dl   .f  ..f.      21i;   .'.2;     ...ntinual     'tat.-     of 

r.d2,    l:;'.',     .  .'iiti.l.  IP '-    in    "11-..-.-,  ]-r.  j.ai.  .In.  ■ -.      2.''2    .".3;        a      h\  p 

2"!  ;    Army  .\.  t,.|iily  1  I.  I'.d2.  221  n..ti/..l      [-..p!.-,      2'.''..        .:in.ii;,d 


Indi'.x  .'J  5  7 

HtutixticH,    270-71  ;     »ih«    of    yiivnt  (Ircy,  Sir  Ivlw;ir<l,  I)r.   ZiinnnTrnaiin 

inortftrH   by,   2H!(  IK)  ;    miiifliiyin^;  mi.   \'.iH  ;    tin-  ciu  ir«  lin;.'   [kjHi  y  «f, 

hy,     2!Kl-94  ;      tln<    call     on     (!o(l,  140;    |>ro|K(M.i!  for  inidi.itiou,   1H5  ; 

;{64 -(}  ;     ixipulatioii  Htafi.sticH,   'Ml,  thi>    ofifir    pfiiMcd.    Ihit'M);     l.tt<r 

'.il'.i  ;      (jiicstioii     of     liniitiiit;     the  from     Sir     Maiiricf     (!<■      Utin-^ti, 

miinlxT    of    cliiidrcii    in.    UM-lf);  l!t2  ;   Sir    Kdward    (IomIichh    t<-lc- 

Hill    a^^aiiist    the    new    .Malthu.sian  uraiii,    I'.tH  ;     pica    for    a<  <  ipfaruf! 

])ractict's,    .'{15;     (lucstioii    of    the  of    tlic    Serbian    Not*-,     1I>4  ;      th<; 

rcduci'(l  bir(li-rat<>,  ;U.">-1!>;    abso-  declaration  of  war  ai/ainst    Hu.H.xia, 

Into  natiin-  of  thr  ^'ovcrnini-nt  in,  2"()  ;       cornNpondiiicr      with      ."^ir 

;{;52  ;   or^ani/.in^:  (tower  of,  li:?."*  .'{(>  iMlw.ird    (loxlien,    211~-1.'{;     Lnx- 

"  (Jesellsfliaft    ziir    J)<-kiiini)fiin^    der  enilniru's    a|)|)reciat ion     of    tiie<lia- 

UlK'rlK'V(")lkeriini;       l)eutsih!and.s,"  fion     proiKtsaJM,     210;      rejdv     to 

;{l()  rrinee  Lielmow.-ky'.s  nie-sa(.'e,  2.'1."(  ; 

ficyer,  family  naiii(>  of  \\'ai;ner,  42  the  aLTeement    with    Kranee,  2.'{'.)  ; 

(IhilK'lline,  j)arty  name  of,  ;il  8j>ee(  li  of  .\iiLMi--t  li  (i,  I'.llo,  iiuntnl, 

(iibbon  on  the  employment   of  ;^'iin-  240;     attituije    toward.^    interveri- 

powder,  7i(()/r(/,  1  tion,  242;   ant  i(;erman  ])oli' y,  ;!;(7 

(liesl.      Huron,     telegram     of,      iHf)  ;  (irimm  rz/iv/.  If),  <»() 

leaves  l{<L'rade,  187  ( Irijx'nMtedt     and,    .Sweclen's    Danish 

(liMliaim.    Marquis  di  .San,  ndvie(>   to  pftliey,  t)(i 

Vienna,  201  (Jrotius.  ,'J2 

Civet,  21(i,  217  (luarantee  Treaty  of  1S7(I,  228 

(livet-Namur  sector,  French  advance  (irulM-r,  Professor  M.,  ,'514  und  note 

exjx'cted  by  (JermanM,  210,  232  (!ue  d'llossus,  atrocities  at,  274 

("iladstone,    \V.    K.,   and   ixMce,    i:$8  ;  (Uielph.  |arty  name  of,  .'11 

and  tiio  Bulgarian  massacres,  1875-  Oucrarti,   A..  '"  I'Vancc  and  tht'   War 

7t).  158  of  Keven-e,"  151 

GleLsz,    Pastor  ()..   on   the   Northern  CJulak,  22 

Schleswigers,  75  (iunpowder,  Clibhon  on  the  emplov- 

C.oethe,  4(\  51,  2f.)2-();{  meiit  of.  q\ii,i,,l.  1 

fJogol,  22  Cuns  used  liy  tlie  (lerman<.  2slt  !M) 

(Joldstein.  Dr.  V..  :]1(),  .'{18  (Uintlier.  Pastor,  sermon  of.  2'.i'J 
Ciordon,  (leneral.  d(v\th  of,  1  1!{ 

(lortchakofT,     Prince,    opposition     to  HAHsnntr,  dynasty,  jiowcr  of  the.  in.'l 

Bismarck,  11!);    foreign  l)olicy,  150  llacckel.  272 

(Joschen,     Sir     Kdward,     correspond-  llau'iic.  'J'lie.  Serbia's  olTcr  to  submit 

encc  with  Sir  K.  Crey.  1!).'{,  21  1-1.'{  ;  to  arbitration.   1S2.   Iss.   I<t5.   109; 

on    the    rece])tion    of    the    British  J^iIl'Iuiu  b()\ind  by  the  Convention 

ultimatum    in    l{<'rlin.   23(5;    n^jily  of     1007.     214;      war     regulations 

of  th(>  (ierman  Cliancellor  to,  327  adoi)tetl  by  the  Conference  of  l.s'.tO, 

riOsz(\vnski.  22  27S-70  :       WOmen's     Peace     Con- 

Cothien,    on    the    resjionsibility    for  grcss.    1015.   2S5.   .'{SO  ;    artii  ]<s  of 

the  war.  152.  22t)-27.  200-01'  the  Convention  of  lS07.  202  ;    rides 

Coths.  wars  of  the,  10.  20-:{0  of   war  laid   down.   2'.t;{-0-t  ;     ]>rin- 

(iramont,     on     the    a]i])oinf ment     of  cijilcs    ado))ted    at    the    Conference 

Prince    U'opold    to    the    throne    of  of  iS'.tS,  .'{42-43 

Spain.   00-0.'{  ;    and    Bismarik.   SO.  Ilai-Ciioa\i.  I'reiuh  occu|iat itui.  l.'!! 

03  ;     and    tiio    Ems    t(degrain.    00,  '"  Hakatism."  51   55 

102-3;     the    declaration    of    war.  Hall  .Ministry.  1S(;3.  <i2,  00 

100.  101  llall-ren.  Cajitain  J.,   on   the   unpre- 

Oravclotte.  Battle  of,  UU  parcdncss  of  I'rancc.  2:{2-33 

'■  (ireat  Interregnum,"  the.  31  HamburL'.    trade    of.    l;{2  ;      Worlds 

(ireat  Revolution,  tlie.  1702.  242  Peace    Con_'rc>s.     ls'.»7.     14S;     the 

(ireece.  invasion  by  the  (iotiis.  28  Bismarck  statue  in.  34t) 

Crenadcs.  liand.  use  of.  2!MJ  ]Iamh}irijrr     Xnclincfil' ri,     the.      Bi.s- 

llrevy.  Jules,  on  the  Kus.-ian  Alliance,  marck's  or^'fin,  07 

124  Hanover  nnnexctl  hv  Prussia,  70-80 


358  Indkx 

Hansomann  and  the  rolos,  '>4.  '>")  Hirschfcld,  Dr.  M.,  252 

Haii.s«'n.  J.,  JiiK.H  Cnvy  and,  124  Holland,    wparation    from    Belgium 

Harden,    Maximilian,    on    why    (^t-  1.<U,     82;      (rt-rman    dtsicns    on, 

many  wa^rs  war,  233-34,  23."»,  26.'^,  121  ;     dr.sii'as    of    Louis    XIV    on, 

:U.'>  4<i  241  ;    ftifitivrs  in.  279;    nhiiw  lost 

Hariiak.  272  I'y,     2l»4  ;      foundatioiLS     for     tho 

Harimann.     (It-nt  ral     J.     von.     The  |»<ai-«»  aft«r  tin-  war,  32i» 

Mecy^Ktly    and    Uum-.uity    oj    W'lr,  Holly.  22 

quot'll,  271,  '2s:,  Hoist*  in.  27.  (U,  79 

Hartwi^',  von,  death  of,  171-72  Hor>t-Kohl,  difincc  of  Ht-marek,  ".♦7 

Harwi  ):h,  {vx-t,  .'kJ  Hot«l      d<s      Invalides,      r.Lsinan  k'.s 

Hi«.---<-,  ('..  J/f n-iriiyd.  ,'{14  ti'>U  d<man«l.  112 

Ha.sM-  of  the  Ki-iLlu-tuj;.  1;J4  llrusevski.  23 

H.'ui|)tmann.  (lerhardt,  272  HiiL'iienots.  jH^rseciitions  of  the.  lt)4 

H<<lin,    Dr.    .<..    Ihr    Irmcht'ni'j  lUr  Hum'.  41 

rn<jli-'rhfn  \\,litii<trht.  7IJ"^'/,  12    13.  Hnn;:ary,    'I'urki.sh    8ym|>athy,    Ds7r., 

2<;3-»'..'i.  :;7.'>  ir»S;    llalkan  jniliry.  17;") 

H<  lTt<r,  Ihi.i  t'.uTi'jxit^rhf   VvlkirTfcht,  Huns,      raids      on      t'hina,      2S-2"J ; 

cxt-ii,  2  eruelties  of  the,  'ZK) 

H.v'.ir.  I'rof.-.-x.r  A..  314  nnd  w>lr  Huss.  .John,  21-22 

ll'V''l.  plii'o-ophv  of,  43  ;   tierin.iiiisin  Hv^'icnie   Kxhiliition,   Dre.sden,   ItUl, 

of.  4'.t  "31() 

H   in--,  ]{..  oiiuin.  42 

H-  llferith.  Dr..  2.VJ  i        xi                        i    o<..> 

,,    Ml           \i     .>..-  1 1)  V  .Mine  iMiisonid.  J;t2 

H>  lllxru.  M.  2'.t<  , ,1    .',  .    _..,    , .,, 

M'll.striim     (luNf.if.   en    the   .••  it ii.it ion 

Ix-fiTc     ill'-     vs.ir.     22ti  ;      imoimts 


k-n.iti<  II.  (I.inral.  1  .V.t 
llui  I'.iv.  r.  the.  17 


,       ., .,    ,  Iiid' iM-ndfiit    Kn.'li-h    l^ilHuir    rarlv, 

l)V.  2/  /.  2^4  ,1        M- 

H.lmoM   ni.  {.  M  ,    V"'  "              ■     .            ..   i-        ,   i-,- 

,,    ,       .     1.    I-             ■.              .      •  I.,..          India,  (ipinimiiiiiatii'ii  with  l'.i.'\pt.  13/ 

H'iiiistadt   I  luv.r.-'itv  emi)tv  in  i'2t>,        ,     ,        ,.     .,                  ■    .           <    iii 


H.iil..  r  .  42 

III  r.i'  r.  ■i<>  11.  .1.1  1,1 

,,  1      ■    .1  1/-    1-  Infant  niortnlitv  m  .lai«;in  and  (  iiina, 

Ifiriniindiiri,  th<\  M>.  1.  .,,,,  •  ' 


India.  Farther,  aitjiii-it ion  of.  144 

liido-Cliin.i.  144 

ln(lo.(;.rma!i.''.  Dr.  \\  ollT  on.  47  4s 


Horta.  the,  1.-, 


310 

,,     ,       I-       1  ■  I  .1  IriiuT.  Dr.  ('■..  view.-  of,  3:{7  3n 

H'-rtz,   iTictlrKh,   on   the   ra(  e   fines-       i     i    n       ,^-       , 

,,    ,  ,,  ,,     '  I-^aN-lIa  of  .>^l«iin,  dfiKi.-ition,  hs 


tion,       M'-Urnr       /uix-tn      thntrun, 

'I'inlf.l,    S     [) 

H>  rt/,  H,,  42  ,,    ,.               .                   1       /                 .1 

,,     .      .,     ,.,  It.ilian   nation,    iH..pIts   fornuii;.'   the. 

M'  rt/.  M  .  42  111.1,.                     I 

,,                             »      .   •   •                     .•  II  ;     lt:iuaius  on   (iiriii.in  r.ulwav.**, 

H'T/'/ovina,     .\uxtriaH     annex.nt  i^n  ... 

of.    I.-,.;,    jtit    (.7.    17J    7t,.    l'..'.t  L'lHi  ;  •"•'                                     ,1           n 

,                  ,-_           ,               ,  It.iu'.    f.iiiioiis    nam"-,    4  1  ;     iilluime 

iM.iMil.it  1'. II.       1.1,       t,ii(i  ;       r«d"r!n~,  'in                        ■      .      «       . 

,    ;          111                  ■   .         1.  1  with    rnis.'-ia   au'iiinst    .Xii^trm,    i.s, 

|i.O;        1  !irki-h      -'.!/■  runt  V.      liil  ;  ^  ,                                 ■       x      .i      w 

,,         I               ,             ,_.,      ,_.,  .s"  ;     i".^,s<-.->in!i.>i    in    North    .\frira, 

tin-    li.iii.'r    trilii.     liJ.     1,.(;      i"  ,,,    .,'               ,         ,      ...       ,      .,, 

,                          /    .1  1-2    2.!.    iiieli  r  till'    I  niil'    .Mh'ui'i', 

<iii>ati..ii    i.f.    .1    i.iii-'     ..|    th'     w;ir.  ,  .,       .,    ,,.^             ,            .1,      ,.,.- 

'  !o      o2.  i'.'s  ;   I   iih  n.  ut  r.ilit  \ .  ;.'<i,  ; 


1-niail  l'a.»ha,   142 
Ist.d.   lUttle  i,f.  CI 


(i.  n.Miii.  .  ■•  th'-   I  rip!-'  .Mh.inr.-,  IUk 


211 

,,  ',.T~  ,        .       ,    ,,  11  l\.in"\it.  h    M  ,  n  |...it  id.  L'mi 

II'  —  -.  I-.i' I  t'.r.it'' id,  rrii"-i.i  '!■  .  linn  ' 

w.ir  "II.   HO;    iiii'l  th"   w.ir  "f   1  sTo. 

!o:t  .1  \  .!>:.  \'..  r,/.  .',,11  th'-  Sl.iv  f.inuly.  172 

II'  \'  111  MiIh  ,  th'  .   17  .l».-"W.       H, n      \,.n.      r-  ],ly      t.',      th.' 
Ill'  r,  a,'.  11:11'.  i;  1  I  ;ii--iiui  '  hiir/'   li  A  iLuf'  ."  m  1'.'  rlin. 

Mill  !■  iihir. •.<;•!, 'Til. '^n  th'- (rii.  Ill' M  |m,;       ,1.  .  1. ir.it  i..ii-.      ,.f.      I'.tj    '.»;.'; 

,.f   rh'     w  ir,   27.1.    in    I'.ii-t    I'm- -ii,  r-  pK   t"  Sir  1-'.<I«  ir,i  •  ii ,  \   -.  f '|iii-'-t 

I'M,;    "vi't,,ri'h      '.f.  :tn|    .-,  (,,r    ,i     ,  .  .id,  i,  n, ,  .     I'.t.t;      m-itii' 

llif-'',.    Dr.    M.iT,    on    th"-    liiiut.1t  loll  ti,,in    t',    •  i<  rn.  in    .\inl>.i'--.i,i,  ,r    in 

of  faimli'  ',  .322  l.')nil',n,  23.) 


Indkx 


.350 


Japan,  soizuro  of  Port  Arthur,  l.'U  ; 
wiir  with  HuHMiii,  UOl  ;  quoHtion 
of  ovorjKipiiIfttioii,  ;{(»S-1() ;  n<'^'o- 
(Ufttion  with  ("hiim,  liOH-lO  ;  infant 
mortality  in.  iU() 

Jardin  trAediinatalion,  tht^  aniinalH 
oaten  during  tho  sicj^c  of  I'arif*,  1 1 1 

Joniapp«'H.  H'2 

Jona,  ;{,S 

Jons(Mi,  Dr.  A.,  on  Austrian  cliar- 
ac'tcristicH,  l()IJ-(')4  ;    Shiviii,  171 

Jerusalem,  destruction,  l!S(> 

Jews  aTuong  tho  (lermans,  42  ;  suf- 
ferings through  tho  war,  l!!S7-88  ; 
IM)sition  of  the,  34,'J 

Joanovitch,  Serhian  Foreign  Minister 
on  the  annexation,  qiiotfl.  177-78 

JnlTre.  ])lans  nf,  2'Jti 

.lonelierey,  village  of,  218 

•hirdanes,  (lothic  historian,  citnl.  1(1 

tJorgensen,  Professor,  address  of,  ;}(>2 

Julian,  28 

.Junghluth,  (leneral,  224 

Kadyi  the  anatomist,  22 

Kaftan,  I'rofessor,  7."* 

Kallay.  Minister  of  Finance,  176 

Kamerun,  130,  1!57 

Kant   jirineiples,   40,    41,    44—15,    'A), 

2t)2,    20:5  ;      Philosophic    ArijU7ncnt 

for  I'crjh  tmil  Fence,  50-51 
Karageorgievitch,  Peter,  170-71 
KarUtadstidniiKjh,    comments   on    the 

loss  of  the  LuKitdnia.  21)7 
Kars,  ceded  to  Russia,  159-01 
Katjanski.  23 

Katkow,  the  Slavopliil(\  20 
Kcnnemann.  5-t 
Ketrzynski.  Dr.  W.,  The  East  lihctiish 

Slfii-s.  died,  14-10 
Kiao-Chau.  131.  30S 
Kinkcl,      Professor      CI.,      opinions. 

(IH.il.d.  45  40 
KirchholT,  quoted.  44 
Kitchener,  (Jenoral.  143 
Kladus,  fortress  of,  104 
Kleen,  R..  Ihe  Lnv^  of  War,  278 
Klincewski,  2.3 
Klinger,  Max,  272 
Klobuk,  fortress  of,  104 
Kloi>stoek.  40 
Kohler,     Professor,    essay     on     SiJJ- 

d- fence  nnd  S(  iilrdliti/.  22S-2'J 
KoUar.  22 
KiiUer,  (Governor,  expulsitin  C)f  ]>ane.s 

by,  75,  77 
Kollmann     on     the     race     question, 

quoted,  8 


Kdlnische.  Zcitung,  tho,  artieloH  citfd, 

08,  72,  222-23 
KondakofT,  23 

K(')|>enick  incident,  the,  2.Vi  i\otr 
Korea,  Japan's  prize,  .308 
Kostomarov,  2.3 
Kotlarevski.  22 
Kiittschau.  Lieut. -Colon'-l,  I>ir  nurhftr 

Krir'j.  121 
Krasinski,  22 
Krazewski,  22 
Krif'/'trjehritKch    iin    Lnndkiii  iji"    dt-d, 

271 
Kriiger,  Cajitain,  letter  of,  292 
Kru[)p.  I'Vau  IV-rtha,  guns  of,  2(K) 
Krupp.  ironworks  of,  132 
Kuiisj.  23 

"  Kulturliund,"  aims  of,  334- !>0 
Kvitko.  22 

Lnhoitr  Lender,  the,  article  quoit d, 
242 

I>alanco,  A.,  memlx-r  for  Al.sace.  13(5 

I>ampreoht,  Professor,  views,  272, 
337-38 

Iy<tndu'irt<chiflJ  JnhrhiieJi'  r.  \','>\ 

Language,  a  determining  factor  in 
fixing  tho  nationality  of  people, 
9   10 

Lansdowne,  Lord,  letter  from,  to 
Mr.  Asquith,  242 

I-aw,  Mr.  Honar,  letter  to  .Mr. 
Ascpiith.  242 

I.«iws,  international,  teachings  of 
Treitsclike.  4()-47 

Lazarevitj,  21! 

Lazarus,  .M..  42 

I.,<>aguo  of  Patriots,  122 

'■  League  of  Peace,"  119 

Ledochowska,  ('ountcss,  account  of 
devastation  of  Poland.  2S()-s7 

D^fevro  d'Ktaplcs,  41 

I^'gislative  .Vs.semhly  of  France.  1  S7n, 
opposition  to  the  appointni'iit  of 
Prince  Leopold.  90-92;  n-crption 
of  the  Fms  teleu'ram.  99-l0i>.  lnl    2 

Lehnitz,  the  philosoplier.  origin.  II 

Ix'ipziLT.  122 

Ixdevel.  22 

Lemaitro,  J.,  propo^d  r'jardim: 
Lc>rrainc.  1  IS 

T^emlxTg  rnivcrsity.  22.  2!!.   M'-* 

I-cinmiuL'.  tli>'  Xorwcjian,  fcitilitv 
of.  325  ,•-./. 

Leopold  of  HohiMizollcrn.  Spnni-h 
Crown  otTcrcd  to.  SS-ltii  ;  aban- 
dons his  candidature,  91-94  :  Ris- 
marck  and  his  renunciation,  04-93 


360  Index 

I>crm(.nt<ifl,  22  Lyon.«.  107 

L«"r<iy-IJ«  aulhii.  profH)!*!*  for  wttle-  Lvcns,  Lonl,   BritLnh  Ambassador  in 

ment  of  Alwiro  <ni.  Kti,,n,  140  oil  I'uris,  ami  Cirnnu-nt.  ltl-03 
l^t-^Mj.?!,  work  of,  142 

l>s>.  r,  4:J  Maastiu.  iiT.  S2 

I>-K.sinf.  4<i  .Ma.hirtvcUi.  t<-n<  hinrs  of.  4«>"47 

\^t'huh7J\.  Au-tri.'wi  atrcKitiis  in,  2nH  M,».  hin<-  -un<,  2'.»«i 

I>fti.-  Slavs,  .li-tril.utioii,  1 '.t  MirMihon.  Mir-hil,  <1.  f.  at  at  S<tlan, 

LiU•rnl^.    (;.  rriiiin.    ftti<i    the    ."vlil.--  loj 

wij'Tf..  71    72  M<icht]>A\t\k,  jx.lirv  of,  4<") 

LiUratioii.  War  of.  1M:{.  2:.:5  Ma.lftfawar.  144 

l.i.  l»iii.»>ky.    rritir.-.    rii'-v-af.-    to   >\t  Mali-li.  tli-.  14:5 

K'iwani  Cr.v,  2:{.".  Main  Kiv.r.  th<-.  17 

Ai.  l>rh>,rh.  th.'.  7:{  M  ii'-»>ki.  tlu-  ftn-h:i'loKi'*t.  22 

I.i.v-.    fall    of.    211;     iK.Mtion,    223;  Milan,  ourt.  Torrst  of.  2'.«i 

th.-  atta.  k  on.  2.!.".  M,,h  ./our»i<;/.artul«  h  <iuol>,l.  17s.  l.M) 

Liml.iir...  s2  MalthiiManiMii.  th.-  n<  w.  :U4-H>.  .■{2:< 

I.iinl.urj  Stiniin.  ('o\int,  5t".  Mm.  huri  a.    S.iiitli.rn.    Japans    jx.-i- 

l.i-zt.   ^rofl■^x.r  IVnn/.  v.'ii.  42.  272;  t  i..M  in.  IS"'.' 

M  h.iiK- of.  IJMii-.Hs  Man.i.r-troin,     ]h>Vu\    {,>\\ni<U     1 'cn- 

l.ithuania.  (J.-rinan  t.nitalit  i.  .>■  in.  '2si',  tnark.  lit',   (i7 

Lithuanian     information     Htircau    in  .Mann.     'Ihonia^.      on     rultiirc      and 

Pari.-.  Ktaf.  ni'iits  }iy.  2^1'.  inilitariMU.  '.H't 

I.itlmanian  lan^'uaLV.  Ctrnian   forms  Man  han.i.  .Maj.ir.  14:{ 

(l.riv.l  from.  l;t   20  M  ir.  ii-.-.  1  »r.  Julian.  ."121 

I.itliuanian  Slav-,  lii-t  nl.iit  i.  ii.  I'.l  Mar.  u-<-.  1  >r.  Mix,  art  u  li>  l.v.  !Ur»    It'i. 

1^>.  k.-.  41  :iL'2   2:t 

IxkIz,  (If-tni'ti.pn  of.  2^7  .Maria  'I'h.  r<-a  of  .\u-tria,  :!.">,  37, l.")!! 

Lon.l.in  i.,i,f.  nric-  Pv-ar.lin^'  S.  l.lih-  .Mariann.'  I'-I.uhI-.  !:>•> 

wii;Hol-.f<in.  f.l.  ti."i  Marin/'  r.  M..  2.s2 

Ix)n.i..n.  {'..liration  of.  3(i2  .Mar-hall  I^Ian.i.-.  Kti) 

I>)n'ion,    'ir.aty    of,     Is.'i'.t,    s2.    sJ;  .Martens.    ( lansc    formulat<(l    by.  at 

('.••riiian  vi..lation.  21'.i  llami"-  ( "onf'-n  in  .■.  27'.» 

Tyondon.  'I'r'-.aty  of.  1m.7.  >vJ  .Martin.  II..  o[.ini<.u-  <iwifil.  4') 

l.on-.-villr.  ntr.  -  i'i' s  at.  27:5  Ma--ai  ns,       1  nrki.-h.      in      lliili-'aria. 

I,on/o(,ani-<.  th.  .  It.    17  ls7.'.-7t'..  1.".7   r.s 

l...[--  .1.    \'.  -a.  4  1  M.  .  kl-iihur/.  27 

I.o.il.f.     K.luar.i    \!I  -    vi-it    fo.    in  M.  inhar.lt.      I',      K'inn     Ihut.-chUiud 

r."'.'!.    l:i7  \\  ,U]>ditil:  (r.ih-n.  V.Vl  ^U'te 

I.oiii-   XI  W   l.-.l.  1  (■,:,,  211  M.  ni.  1.  Iiii->ian  raid  on.  2M» 

I.'.ii-   .W.  -a\iii.-  of.  (juol,.!.  Iti7  .M.  iid.l.  j.  w.  23 

l."Mvriiii.      th.'      (i.rmui      manif.-to.  .M.n. LI--,  .hti.  M.  ■-'■•*.  42 

272;      Ih.'    j.).!-i,..  tit     ,.n    l'r..f.  .-...r  M.n.J.  l-..hn   liar  th.  .Llv.  42 

M.  t:r.  r      u.jk.  2:'^   7'.'  M-  ii^in.a.  1 'r    i  H-  ii-hur/ i.  314 

F,.Mi\  r..  t!..  .   r.i-ii.  »r.  V.  -  <1.  I".  U..1.  1  12  .M.r.mMl.-    Manii'-,    ( l- rmany'.s    nc<-d 

b.\s.  t.f.  11.   It    I.  .  :!1  I  ..•'   '  -..,'.  f..r  a.   1.12 

I.u.|«i..     II    ..f     i'..i'.  ma.    |.r.'i-..-.il    I'f,  M-rrur.      ..'■       AV.it:-.  .      i  ju.  -t  l.>n..«      on 

lo'i  |»a.  -•.   Its    J'.l 

l.nn.  mH.  .  l..,„,l.    <u.  .\ii.'u   t   3.  2ls  ;  M.  f.  hn!k..lf.  L'3 

l....tin.' a!,  2vi  M.t/.  1"».  li'T.  122.  12S 

/,,..:,',,.  I. /.!■■-  .f  th.  .  2','.'.   ii*"!  .M.    ir.  r.    I't. .!■■■•:.     '    1  h.-    .Ju.l/m.  nl 

l,.;'h.  r.  21.  .-.J.  41  '■■<   I  ■    r..iii..      27'-    7'.t 

l.'ix.  I'.h.ir.-.    n.'iitr.ilifv     ..f.      s!'.    si;  M.  .,  .  ,  2 1".  L'^'.i.  23.'.  2'.hi 

(.•rii.air.   •-    l^    i.f     '••,    s7    vs.      ii.  u  .M.  \  i    .in  . -i  iri  |.-ii.  ir-  .  if   I'ran.  c,   l<i3 

trih",     /.i  iran'.  • '1.   '  ..  riri.itr.   •    r-  M.\.rl-.r.l2 

.j.,,    -;     -i<:>  ;      ,!.  M.in.l'.     k'ua!.>,)t..  .M.  ...  rh.if.  A  .  liU 

..f    h.  r    ii.  iiU.ihr-,     fi.  iM   C.  ri!.a!i\  .  M.  /i.  r.  ■•.  M.   .\.,  '.' I 

2M  ,    (..  rn.an  I  .  .  ui..iti..ii,  21  :>  .Mi.  ki- « i   /.  22 


Index 


861 


MioroslaTski,  22 

Migration    of    Nations,     the     Oroat, 

causes,  28-31 
Milan,  King  of  iSorhia,  policy,  170 
Milan,     I'rinco    of    Serbia,    doclarcd 

ruler  of  Bosnia,  l87(i.  158 
Militarism,  causes  of,  12(>-28  ;  growth 

of.  2l«  ;  Cernmn,  247-52 
Milierami,  A,  13G 
Milton,  41 
Mines,    employment    of,    2(K),    2!»;{  ; 

float  int;.  2'J4 
Mobili/Jition,   not  a  reason  for  war, 

204-5 
Modi,  (liiston,  views  on  Alsace,  149 
M()^;ast  (near  Hayreuth),  victory  of,  17 
Mohammcil  II,  21)0  tiatc 
Mohammedans,  agitation  in   Mostar, 

17C) 
Mlihre,  41 
Molidre.  41 
Mollard,  M..  282 
Moltke,  Count  von.  attitude  towards 

the   Franco-derman  War,  8!»,  90  ; 

Hi.siuarck   and   the    Ems   telegram, 

9t).    97  ;     ]>lan   of   cami).iign,    1(I4  ; 

admiration     for     (iamlxtta,     107  ; 

on  tlie  war  crisis  1SS7.  121 
Mongolia,    Eastern,   Japan's  position 

in.  :}09 
Mongols,  28 
Mons,  107.  22(5 
Montenegro,      discontent      in,      l.")7  ; 

attack  on  Turkey.   l.")S-.')9  ;    allied 

with     Paissia.     1S77,     1.")!);      iiide- 

IKMuIence,      1S78.      UiO-Bl  ;       help 

uiven  to  .STl.ia,  1912-1;}.  17:$ 
Mimtcsipiicu,  L'fsprit  df-i  Lai-t  on  tlio 

subject  of  war.  qitotid,  \tV.],  221 
Morley  Ixird,  resignation,  242-4.1 
Morocco,  French  ]>ossession  of,   144  ; 

the       Agadir      incitlent,       144-47  ; 

Treaty  of  Xovemlv>r  4.   1911.  251, 

25;{  ;    (Jerman  designs  on,  254 
Mortars  of  42   c.c.,    (Jcrman  use  of, 

2S9~!>0 
Moscow,  tlie  coronation  festivities  in 

iss:?.  12:5 
Moses.  Dr..  :522.  :{24 
Mostar,    occupation    of.     lt)4  ;      Mo- 

liammedans  of.  17t) 
Muchnur  All'j.    Zriliiinj.  the.  75 
Mugdan.  Dr.,  on  the  di'creasetl  birth- 
rate. :{]() 
Muitl>f>nians.  tlie.  ]."> 
MiillcnhotT.  cil'd.  14 
Miiller.  Professor  W'..  fipinion  on  the 

Treatv  of  Prauue  revision,  70,  71 


MuBcovitofl,  distribution,  19 
MyBundo,  Battle  of,  (H 

NaOI.ER,  quotf'i,  44 

Namur,  210.  2ir).  22.1 

Nansc-n,  Frithi(jf,  "  Through  Silx-ria," 

:n2 

Naples,  Peace  Congress,  IH8(),  138 

Nai)olcon  Ponaparte,  the  old  Cerman 
Emi)ire  di.s.solvcd  by,  in  1h<m;,  ;H  ; 
jK-ace  of  'I  ilsit,  ,38  ;  organizing 
power  of,  3.35 

Na])(deon  III  and  the  Peaej^  of 
Prague,  ()8  ;  at  Piarritz.  Pismarck 
anil,  78,  80  ;  reward  for  his  neu- 
trality, 83-8(5  ;  the  Fran( o-Cerman 
War,  89;  and  the  appointment 
of  Prince  l<<'opold.  91  ;  L'uarantecH 
demandt-d  from  Kine  \\  illiam,  93  ; 
the  declaration  of  war,  KM)  1  ; 
numlx-r  of  his  army,  101;  de[)o.H<'<l, 
100;  Sedan,  11.3';  an<i  Austria, 
203-4 

Naj)oleon.  Prince  (cousin  of  NajKileon 
III).  42 

Xiirodna  Odhrnn't,  Socictv  of  P<'I- 
grade,  178,  181 

Nassau  vote  for  Austria,  79 

■'  Nation."  the  term.  115 

National  Service  Act,  1{<-Ii.'ium.  224 

National  Society,  the,  05 

Naumann.  Dr.  F.,  on  neutralitv.  227, 
2()2,  339-40 

Navy,  (iermany's  necessity  for  a.  1.32 

"  Nederlandsche  Ant i-Oorloiz  Paad." 
329 

Neisser.  43 

Nelte,  admissions  of,  229 

Seue  Fnie  Prr^'ic.  articles  published, 
95,  98.  275 

Neukamp.  citrd,  278 

Neutrality,  Dr.  Naumann  on,  227, 
2t>2,  339-340 

Neutrals,  loss  of  life  arnoiiL.'.  294 

New  C.uinca.  l.')() 

■'New  Malthusian  CouLrrcss "  1911, 
3  It) 

New  Zealand,  rabbits  of,  325  rmi.- 

Newton.  41 

Nicholas  11.  visit  of  William  II  to. 
in  1897.  151;  rei)!y  to  tele-ram 
of  the  Crown  Prince  of  Serbia, 
ISd;  fresh  projHJsal  to  Austria, 
195  ;  teleLTum  to  Cernian  Emjvror 
not  pul>li.-hed  in  White  ik'ok,  190  ; 
manifesto  of.  20(j 

Nicomcdia.  27 

Niemccwicz,  22 


362 


Index 


Nietzjichc.  oriiiin.  42  ;   on  th<-  \\ai;n'r  (>v<r  iMipul.-ition,  danijtvs  of,  3l>7-24, 
affair,  4G  :U7 

Nikita.    l'rin<-o   of    Mont*iVk'r<>   inatic  l>x••n^tja^n!»,  Axil.  220 
rul«T    of     HiTzi-^ovina    ls7»>,    l.">s, 

17"  rAcivK',    *;<rman   ivo^.-^-^iiioiis  in  the, 

Soridfut'i-hf  Alljfiiuitu   Z'liun'j.  ]',:>■  l.Ht 

niarvk's  ori.'.m.  f.y  ;    pul.liiatioii  of  I'liillcf.  M..  (  uuiuillor  of  ■hi.-tiic.  2b'2 

the     Krns    t.  I.  .rrani,    iU.    ".t.'i.    Imi  ;  I'iiliKlin.--,  Cn.  ral.  mu  . .  .-.s  of,  1U7 

corunu-nf.H  on  tin-  Tsar'n  t<li'>;rain,  I'alr.'-t  ir>i-.  Jiwsi.f,  2s7   SS 

I'.Mi  ;     »>tli<r  artnU-j*    jmljli.-hod   in,  Pan-(fvniiani.sn»,      nuanint;     of     tho 

22;i  24  t«rni.  ;jy 

Nonl.  til'-,  121  Pimin.  Uuortian  Minister,  3(i 

N'>rt}i  (rt-rnian   iii"t,  and  th<-  war  of  I'annoiiia,  2l> 

1N7U,  1(14  Pan-Slavi.Hm,  20-23,  120.  ir)2"r>r..l71 

North  (tirnian  l\«l<riit ion.  I<i3  I'antli.-on,  I'aris,  l)omUir<liii<nt,  111 

North  .'<<a.  mini  .*  in  til'-.  2'.i3  Panther,   Ini*^iou   of  the,   July    J'Jll, 


Norway  >yiiii>;ithy  with  h'lunark, 
iA\-tU.  tit);  .-hips  lo-t  \<\.  2t»t  ; 
and    th'-    KurojxMii    (  onf.drrat imi, 

No>.«iL'.  l»r.  A..  lh>  d- 'it'chfran- 
;/»«i«/-/i/'  Aii'fi/i-  rutfi,  1.32  v'>l> 

N<'tlio:nh.  1'.."  Iji  15«-l^'ii(iir  Martvrc," 
2^1 

N'ovi-ant.  town  of,  122 

.V(»i.  fM^-r  ^.,^<^^//i.,)/,  tli.\  t'.2 

N'ovi  lU/^ar,  > mj  ik  uf,  r- -lor' d  to 
■I'lirkry.  inc. 

Niiriiiit»-rj.  I!.'),  21  7 

Ny-troin.     .\..     Al-u.  ■/.■•rrnn. ,     liiii 

Ny-troin,  rro(.-.-or  link.  ;t<i2 

(too A.  Ki:.  attiK  k  on  Itoiii".  .'in 
Ojjlr,.,'    diz'tt--.    j;ij---iiii    piiMi' .ition 

'of  th''   I  -ir  .-  t.!".Tiuii.  \'M\ 
( tid' iihiir,:    and    tli'-    (frinan     t'irtli- 

(•Ihvi.r,  Kmil--.  Mini-try  of.  s!t,  !t2  ; 
d''lir;irion  of  «  ir  drawn  np  liv, 
|ol    J  :    1,1-    n  jilj.     to    th-    (>pp.."i 

tloll.     10_' 

(  "li'  k.  II.    in.,    r,,..,    //./.',  n   K'H-r.  '.») 

1  'ii'' 

•    (ij-  II  do..r      iM  M'.r ,   1  }.". 

(  >p|.  r  dorif.  '  oiiiif .  _'.,_' 

Url.ai,-.    .il'.i.  k     l.v    Afil.L.    2'.t  ;      fill 

of.   loT 
(•r-t.d.  n    (■ .  It 
(irth..dox      t,r..k      I  hri-ti  III-,       I'm 

>!  kvi-iri  .lud.  :.'o 
•■  <  l-linaik.  II   \'  o  ,n,  ■  t!,.  ,  .'. ; 
( »  '  ro.-..i!:  -.    --.11 1.  ! :..  h'    III    I'.inii'.ii;  I. 

L".t  .    .  ^  •.v^■.^    t  .d  it  ■!•,  .  110 
(  I  t  w  lid.      Prof.      ,.r.     on     < .,  ii;i.ii,\  h 

of, mi/Ui.-    pi.'A.r,    .'I'l  ;     hi-   iiddri  •.•' 

at  ,-t,.,  kl.ohi,.  :;:ii  :it; 


144-47 

rari.f,  attatk  l)y  Attiia  on.  2U ; 
rt'vrption  of  th'-  Kiu>  t«df;:rain  in. 
ItU  ;  invi.stnicnt  of,  lo."* C.  los  ; 
th«'  |x-aco  conditions,  los  ;  Ik>iii- 
l>ardni<nt.  111  12;  tht'  tUrinan 
Kolilii-rs  in.  112-13  ;  (Itrnian  plan^^, 
2<H  ;  th<'  tlinat  to.  232  ;  capitula- 
tion. 1S7!.  2'.t'J 

'as.al.  41 

•a^hit(h.  .M..  iH.licy.  174.  2«K) 

'a.st'ur  In-^titnt<-.  I'ari.s.  23 

'aw low,  23 

'aycllc.  M..  2.S2 

Aix  iaChai^dl.-,  of.  242 
( 'am]Mi  i-'orniio,  of.  S4 
Con^p.Ksat  Na|.lr.H  in  Ishh.  l;ts 
( 'oni:r>-.s.-MS,  utihty  (d,  311   42 
J'oiindations    of,    after    tin-    war, 

32'.>   31 
Frankfort,  of.  los 
l>'a;;ii>',  >./■   1  riplc  .Alliance 

rra;.-lir.  (d.  f.S    70.  HO 

.S.in  St.  faiio.  of,  1(K>  ()1 
'lil.Mt.  of,  3S 
V.Tsaill.-.s,  of.   los 
\  i-nti  I.  <d.  <>.'( 
\\.-tpli.ili.i.  -d.  31 
J'liii^'in'"     M'tjuiut,    art  ill''     '}Ui'l"i. 
24  3 
■'  I.  w    Idin.l-.   13'l 
'.  t.  r  III,  l..:i 
'.  tiai'  h.    II 
■' t  F"!' mil.   ^priyiii;'   willi.  a   (i<-rnian 

.1'  \i.  '  .  2'.»o.  -'.»1 
•lit.  r.  Mij'.r  11.  von.  121 
•f..tl.  .  2'.' J 
■j.ilipp  ..!,.    I'r.d'  -.-or    M..    ii.-,Kuhu 

.1.,   ,..  u-'"^  /'-If.  32   31.  vu'./o/ 
'I.  H'i.  tl,.'  i»  ,1.  '■  h'v-oti  ill'. II.-.   los 
'i'  'jij.irt.  Mijipo-'  d  j'Mirii'y  of,  22'.» 


Indhx 


:303 


Piemonl,  the,  articio  quoted,  179 

Pijjft.  27 

Pirajus,  28 

Pitt    tho     Younger,    (leclaration    to 

Frftiico,  242 
Place  de  la  Concorde,  an  incident  of 

1871.  112-13 
PlatonolT,  23 
Plevna,  Battle  of,  159 
Podolia.  19 

Poggio,  tbe  Florentine,  <5 
Poincare,    charge    against    Germany, 

219 
Poland,  savants  of,  22  ;    partition  of, 
35-37  ;     German    policy    towards, 
iH'fore   Bismarck,   53-.'>4  ;    German 
devastation  of,  28t»-87 
"  Polenkiiil)."  the,  KIO 
Poles,    distribution    of,    19 ;     Russia 

and  the.  21 
Polish     subjects     in     Prussia,     37  ; 
Russian,     Prussian     expulsion     of 
54-55,    120,    154  ;   efforts   to   Ger- 
manize. ,50-58,  1(59-70  ;  in  German 
mines.  315 
Politiku,  the,  articles  quoted,  178,  179 
Pomeranian  Slavs,  the,  1(> 
Population,  question  of  limiting  the 
numlx^r  of  children.   313-14  ;    the 
new  Malthusian  teachings,  315-16  ; 
question  of  the  reduced   birth-rate 
in    German}-,    316-19 ;     of    Japan 
and     China,     308-10 ;      Euroj>ean, 
statistics,  310-13 
Portuguese  in  Africa,  cruelty,  268 
Posen.    jK^rsecution   of  the   Poles  in, 

56-58 
Positivist    Society,    address    on    tho 

Schleswiu  ([uestion,  71 
Potsdam,  154 
Pourtales,  Countess,  87 
Prague.    Peace   of   1866,   68-70,    80, 

167,  342 
Prague  University.  22 
Praxiteles,  sculptures  of,  28 
Preu.sscnlird,  the.  73-74 
Preji,fsi'<che  Jahrbiicher.  46 
Prim,   Marshall,  and   tlie  <lisposal   of 

the  S[wnish  Crown,  88-90 
Princip,  assassin,  156,  179-80 
Pringslieim.  N..  42 
Protestant  revolution,  the.  31 
I'rusa.  27 

Prussia.  Prince  Henry  of,  I'.H! 

Prussia,   tlie   r;u  ial   question   in.    11  ; 

revival  after  the  Thirty  Years  War, 

3.V;{7  ;      treatment     of    the     Poles, 

54-58 ;    suj'prcssion  of  Sehlcswig- 


Holstein,  60-77  ;  war  with  Au»tria, 
1866,  78  81  ;  the  Franco-German 
War,  85  94  ;  unity  of,  Bismarck's 
aim,  108-9 ;  strength  of  army 
increased  in  18H0,  120  ;  expulsion 
of  Poles  in  1885,  120;  hec.inony 
of,  a  cause  of  tho  WOrld's  War, 
243  ;  militarism  in,  249  ;  German 
account  of  Russian  atrocities  in 
East,  288-89 

Pugnv,  town  of,  122 

Pushkin,  22 

Puz,  Alexander  v.,  quotf-d,  49 

Raiuut,  fertility  of  the,  325  uoti: 
Racialism,  German  theory  regardintr. 

in  Europe,  7   13 
Racine,  41 

RadJL'ast  cult,  the,  16 
Raditijevitj,  23 
Radzivill,    Prince,    on    the    W'reschen 

affair,  .56  ;   and  B<'nedetti,  93-94 
Raiding  in  Hungary,  42 
Ramsay.  Sir  W'.,  237 
Ranees,  Spanish  Ambassador,  88 
Pvayleigh.  Ix)rd.  237 
Ri'iliieli,  Professor  J.,  quoted,  173-75 
Remiitz.  17 

Reichshofen.  Battle  of.  104 
Reichstadt,  the  meeting  at,  1876,  159 
Reiehstatr,  navy  vote  1900,  132 
Reiss,  Prt)fessor,  on  the  atrocities  in 

Serbia,  288 
Religion  and  the  war.  342-6 
Republic,   the   French,  of   1870,   pro- 
claimed, lu6 
Reveillere,  Admiral,  on  neutrality  of 

Alsace.  149 
Revisionists,  the.  323.  324 
lievuf  dr.s  deux  Monde.8,  281 
Rczozowski.  22 
Rhein-Wrstjal  Zcitunj.  on  tlie  AgnUr 

incident,  quotrd.  146 
Rhine  Confederacy,  the.  1S06.  38 
'■  Rhine    Republic."    projujsed    name 

for  Alsace-Lorraine.  149-50 
Ribot.  on  policv  of  Frederirk.  117    18 
Richard.  H..  Peace  Jiill  of.  i:!8 
Rieliclicu.  quoit d,  220,  241 
Riehter,    Eu^ren.    principles.    45.    75, 

24  S 
Rockefeller  U'ru-^t.  report  of  tlie,  2S1 
Pvohrbich.  Dr..  2112 
Roman     Ilnipire.    German    invasions 

of  the.  27-31 
Rome  plundered  by  tlie  N'andals.  .SO 
Romulus  Augu>tulus.  (.German  defeat 

of,  30 


364  Index 

Roon,    Gorman    War    Minb-t<r,    (K)  ;  Saint  Sulpico.  lx>mbardment,  HI 

Uii>mftrck  and.  iK>,  !•"  Sjil.indra.  Italian  Pn-mifr,  Htateraent 

Rosenthal.  1..  42  on  the  war.  2i)l.  2vi7 

Ro««,     RrofiKMir    F.     A.,    on    infant  Sali--l'ury.    .Mar<(iiis   of,   at    the   Con- 
mortality  in  (  hina.  [i\u  ur<  >s  of  l{«rlin.  lt>S 

Rojk-H,  Sir  Honalii.  1137  Salins,       l'rii->ian      Ambas-sador      in 

Rott«<  k.  IlsshTy  oj  thr   Worll,   \\  Hll.-.-i.i.  IJf. 

Rudoljih  of  Hajusliur;.'.  31  Saloni<a.  1,'>7 

Ruhr,  industriiH  of  the.  132  S^ilvarsan.  43 

Rumania,  diM<>nt«-nt   in.   l.'>7  ;    alliotl  Samo.  kin;:(iom  of.  17 

with  Ru--sia    I>77.    l.'ilt  ;    ind<]H-nd-  Sainoan  I.sland!>.  130 

»  nrc  lh7s,  ir^»  »il  ;  l)irth-ratf.  317  San  St<f;»no.  i>ta<  r  sit'iud  at.  1G<>  lil 

Rimii-lin,    li.,    warning    to    (Ivriiriny,  Sutur-huj  li'Vi<u\   \i>\r,,  anti-Cn-rinan 
3  If.                                                           "  arti.Ks.  133 

liu.-sia,      ran-SlaviMii      in.      l.***  '-'3  ;  .•^avoniriia,  41 

authors  of.   22  2.3  ;     and   jwirtitinn  Saxons,  the.  Iti.  30 

of   I'oland,   3.'>  37;     I'ol-s  <xi>>lii<i  Saxony.  I'rti'--ian  war  on.  79  HO 

from.    iA  ;     ra>i.-f    of    thi'    l"ranro-  Sazoiiof.     M..     vii-w    of    tin-     Auhtro- 
Ru-.-ian  Allianr.-.  1 1^.  1 1<(.  123   2.'.  ;  lluntiarian  Not.-  to  ,<«-rl.ia.  1h3  S4  ; 

thf  hnak  with  (Jcrmany.   lilt  20;  n'ply  to  th'-  (!'-riiian  AmlKissador's 

th<>     Knt'li.'-li    tiit<-nt<"     with.     140;  n()U<st.  I'.t.") 

t-arly   fmndly   nlation.s   witli    (Iit-  .'<<andinavia.   saying'  of  Jordanos   n-- 
many.      l.'»2  .'>.">;      hcl])     (.'iv'-n     to  ^jardiri/.  lt>;   jKHipUs  of,  17,24 

.^•rl)ia     1h7(;.    l.'.S-.'iK  ;     war    with  Si  h.uhin:it"tl.  23 

'lurk.y     1h77.    l.'i'.t.    172;     jirotc'-t  Scli.if.r.      !•.,      l>ie      lifhutumj     drr 
to    Austria    rf;.MrdinL'    !4osnia    anrl  S,  ■  in'i<-}>t.    132   »i"/»- ;     The   Mtuniruj 

Htr7.r;.'ovina,   l»i7  ;    .<<rliian  jxiiirv,  <,J  Sinl'inr- r  to  (lirvi'iny,  I'JOO,  1.33 

171,     174;      vi.w    of    tin-    Au-triii-  S(  h' pi'.  1  >r..  2t;i 

Huii.'arian    Not<'     to     S.rl.ia,    ls.3;  S.  liill.  r.  4<'.  4'.l.  :.2 

Count    S/jiji-iry    on    thi-    situ.\tii>n,  S(  hi' itut/.  s7 

lh7  ;     mol.ili7,itioti.    (  .umt     iVrch-  Si  hi'-wit;- iI<iKt<iii.   l'ru.->ian  .-t  ru:.vl<' 
tolds     ap[>.al.     1  ,sh   H'.t  ;      (l-riiiin  fur.     {•H3.    i><»   t.ti  ;      S\v.  ili-h    syiu- 

(ornmi-nts,    1(«>  ;     Andra-^y  t,\\  thi-  palhy.     •>•'»   lis  ;       ri-\i-ii>ii     of     the 

li-ilkan    ]M.li<  y   of    i;u-~i.i.    I'.i7   '.'s  ;  I  n  aty,  l'l^   72  ;    .''Ui>pr'',-.sinn  uf  tho 

int'Tvtrit inn  on  S-rliia'.-  pirt.  2o<)  ;  I)anis!i  lauL'uauf.  73-77;    ndmiiUB- 

(ii-nnany  .H    <  otitiil'-ni<-    in    hi-r    un-  t  ration  id,  7h.  1*>7 

n-adini-x.  201  ;    thi-  i-vi-tifs  i.-iidiiiu,'  S<  liIn-MMatiu.  I'r.  di-->or  A.,  .320-21 

up  to  Ihi-  w,ir  with  Austria.  2o.">  (i  ;  Si  humll.  r.      C...      quut.:!,      132      no/'', 
afnMilj.s  in    l-'./v-t    l'ru->ia.  (n-rinan  13J    3.'i.  272.  32.". 

arrounf.    2^7   Ml  ;     ruli  s    ri:-/iriliMLr  S'  hiial»  li-  alTiir.  thi-.  1 20   22 

a<-rial    warfiri-.    2'.t3  ;      populatinti,  S^  hni-idi-r.  74 

311    312;  thi- ( Ii'v  iniiii  lit  .il.~i-luti-  .^^i  hoi-n.    lUron   von.  di  rlar:it  inn  inn- 
in.     332;      a     li.in.irnu.-     military  i  i-riuM;.'  t  hi-    \u-l  rian  Not.-,  I '.ij    'XI; 

jK.w.-r,  331  anti  ir'iiih  stat.-mi-nl^<.   2o.'i  ;    and 

!iu--iani.     'Slav"    nri.  in.     lo  ;     di--  .M.    \i\Mui.    21<'>;     ultiiuituiu    jirf- 

trihutii.ii.     I'.i;      (.n'h-iiii     on     thi-  .- iiti  d  l-v,  21f.    I'.l 

(an-.-  of  thi    V.  iv.  I.I.'  Si  h«  vr/'  ii!.    i.-.  I'li  inii  i.   170 

Ku--o    iurki-h  War  1-77.   l.Mt   t-n  .'s.  hu  id'  ii.  2o.. 

I'.uthi  II'  •'.  ill  -1  ril'u'  ii'ii.  !'.»  ;    ■'  !■  iit  i-t  ■<  S.  i.  !i<  ■-.  iii'  ii  nf,  iii  inif'- 1".  2.'i7 

aiMi'iu'  !h'-,  2.i  ;    ( ;•  rill  mi/.tt  i"n  "f,  S.  l.k\i,   17 

li.'.t   7o  .■^.  "»•  !i    iiiti"ii,    r.u  . -A   1  "ir.p'i.-iiu"    thi', 

|o 

S  ^  M  K  Kivi  r,  17.  I'.l  ■s.  r  ip  "f  I'lp  r  ,,f  js./.t.     l'2o 

.'^.iirl.tu.  k'  n.   j'-ittli-  i,f.  |i>t  S-  \  thi  1!.-.  t!..-.  Jl 

.^id'.ui.  1.,.!.  i.,'.i.  I'l-^.  _'o;t  >.  .iui.  lo|  .,.  ii:i,  :;7j 

.•-.ulit    1'.  t.  rd.ur,-.   i.'.l  S..  ha  Win.   Il'rr,  Ivjo 

.■^■jllllt     I'riV.l".    r^lttl'-   ..f.    |ol  ^.   in  I.   .itl".  in.  r.   111.    jM'i 

.■^.iilit   (^u'litiii.   llatt!'    i.f,   lo7  •-.  inl'vt.   I'r.  II'  !i  li'  p'lty.   I  .'d 


Index  8G5 

Somnones,  tho,  15  Suciiil  Dcrnocrfttio  Cnni'TCK'yiH  held  at 

SculiM,  df8tnutii)H  of.  -'Ht  IJ<Tlin  li»i:{,  :U<.).  :i2:i  L'l 

"  Sc|iU'nimt/0,"  the,  120-U2  Socictii'M,      (l<riiirtn     colnni/il,      \'.H>  ; 

.St'ptiiiiiiiH  ScvcruH,  27  S<Tl)iaM,  ITS 

StTftjcvo,  ljj(i,  IfiJ,  179  >S2.  108  So.  iiio.  1..  atni  1"..  11 

Sorbin,    (iirttrilmtion    of    tho    ix-ojilo,  Sofia  I'liiviTsit y.  '~.i 

19,   2H  ;    (lothoim   on   tlio   Sorhiiiii  Sijihsrms,  fall  of,  107 

qiiostion,  152  ;    (liscoiiloiit  in,  l.">7  ;  "  Sokol  "  iiiovf-miTit,  tli<-,  17s 

war  on  'riirkty,   l.S7<i,   158;    iilli(<i  Solf yk,  22 

with  Kiissiii,  1,S77,  15'J  ;    iiidi'iMiid-  Siliid'-rlxirt.',  f)7 

oiii'o,      1878,      lti()-t)l  ;       iittitudi-  Soiiiiini),  tin-  chixr^.y  against   Au.stria- 

toward.s     Austria's    aniioxalinri     of  lliiti;.'ary,  1505 

Bosnia,  lt)7  ;   tho  '  ( iroaf  Siihian  "  Soncry  rifi-  durin;.' tin-    '1  liirty  ^Varn 

propa^^anda,     170 -7t),     2()l<  ;      war  War,  ."iH 

a>;aiiist  Turkey  1912    13,  17."{;    tlio  Sourd,  !<<•.  9<>,  !tt 

Austrian    Note    of    July    2;J     1911,  South   Crinan   iJi.t   and   tho   war  of 

and    tho    roply,    180-98;     war   do-  1.S70,  KU 

clarod    by    Austria    July    28,    188;  Spain,   Visii'oths  tho  masters  of,  .'{o  ; 

Austria's  ojiposition  to  arbitration,  famous    nainos.    41;     retention    of 

199;   atrocities  in,  288  15<d^'iuin     KiOH,    211;     (  ruelty    of 

Soring',  M.,  132  note  Spaniards  in  America,  2<;s 

Sorvoto,  M.,  41  Sparta,  28 

Seven  Years  War,  cause  of  the,  37  ;  Spinoza,  51 

alliances  during  tho,  153  Spuller.'work  of,  107,  lit) 

Scxudl   I'rMttm-,   tho,   articles   cited,  St<i>tl.4ixia)ii,  the,  arti(  le  qiiotnl,  43 

315-1(),  321-23  "  state,"  tho  term.  115 

SliakosiK'aro,  41  Sl<iti-^tih  r/r.f  deut-ichfu  Ri  /c/i*.-',  qiiol'd, 

Shan.si  L'niversity,  302  270-71 

Shantung,  131  ;   Gorman  rights  mado  Stont'el,  Professor,  134 

over  to  Japan,  309  Stevntlial,  42 

Siberia    as     a    colonizing     territory,  stOclior,  l')r.  Heieno,  31(1 

311-12,      334;       tlio      steppes     of  Stockliolm.  301 

Western,  312  StocUtolms  l>.v,f,lid.  tlio.  295 

Sienkiewicz,  11.,  22,  54,  58  Sl<,ckhnlm-'i  Ttdniuq.n,  299 

Silesia,      cession      to      I'russia,      37  ;  stotT.j,  reiK)rt  citui.  S(i,  104 

industrial  dovelo{)ment,  132  Stolatz    KM 

Sjabatz,  atrocities  in,  288  Strasburg,  It).  107,  113,  128 

Sjevtjenko,  22  Strasburg  L'niversity.  S7,  !.» 

SkoboiciT,    General,    on   tlio    German  Slrn<<hur(jir     Voarur,     tho,     article 

enemy,  quoted,  11  ;   and  Gamlx'tta,  qudlt'l.  S7-88 

124  Stumi)fe.  Dr.  E..  57 

Slav     students     in      Paris,     General  StiirL'kh,  2n2 

Skol^eletf     and,     11;      Congresses,  Submarines.    German,    crimes    com- 

tirst  at  Prague.  20  ;    culture,  21-23  mil  ted  liy.  294-95 

Slavonia,  jH'ojjle  of,  172-73  Sudan,  the!  143,  144 

Slavophiles.  Russian,  sympathy  with  Sudermann,  272 

France.  123                  '              '  Suevi.  tho.  15-1() 

Slavs,  race  liatred  towards  Germany,  Su(>z  Canal.  ()]H'ning,  142 

12  ;     earlier    distrilnition    of    the,  Sulzer.  Profe-.-nr.  4 

14-18;    characti>ristics  of  the.   18-  Svantewitz  cults,  lii 

19;    tho  modern,   lS-19  ;    civiliza-  Swakcj)  mine  poi>oned,  2'.U- 92 

tion     among     tho.     20-23;      Pan-  Sweden,    symjiuhy    with     iKnmark. 

Slavism,  20-23  ;    intermixture  with  Ii0-(i7;     nmhilization.    2ti5;     Sven 

tho  G(>rmans,  41  ;    under  Austrian  lleilin's  revilemi'iit  of.  2ti4  ;    sym- 

rulo.  108-70  jiathy    for     l«I.:iuni.    2i'>5  ;     crime 

Slovaks,  distribution,  19  in.     270  ;      ,-hii>s     lost      by.     294  ; 

Slowacki,  22  protest  :i::ain>t  the  /.  i.^it'snui  crime, 

i!97  ;    anti-German  feeling'  in,  3ol  ; 


tiGG 


Indkx 


«VBt«-m  of  t;ovomm«*nt.   'Xl'2  ;    and 

thi'  Kiiroi)oar»  (oiifclrratioii.  'A'Mi 
Swf<li-s,    skullfiTinfttion   anions    the, 

U ;     !»«•<. jiliu    forininj:    tln'    Swiiii.-^h 

nation.    11;    atlitmlf   towanl.t    the 

war.  l.'«')2 
Swi-*!!)^}!    l'fa<x>    Iyaj,'uo,    proi^'r.inimo 

acc<pt<<l  by.  ai".*  31 
Swit/^Ti. villi,  (it-nnan  (li-sij:n«  (>n.  121 
SzA|xiry,      Count.      l<tt<r     t<»,     from 

Count  15.-r<,htolil,  1>7-8.S 

TAflTlS,   Gtrmiini'l,  r,i,,{,    \'>    IC,   'J."*, 

-'«■» 
'lartarv.  Ht'-piRS  of,  29 
Tas.^,.  41 
'rchtrnayi  tl,  la!) 
'iVl.lK'.hir  1,SM',  lt:i 
'I'fUtobiirv'iT  \\  aid,  linttlr  of  th-',  27 
l"<Mitons.  tiui:r:ition.  27 
'J.wiik,  Klii'iiv.-  of  Kk-yjit.  U.'J 
'rhail/^zy,    I'rof.-.-or    L.    v.,    on    the 

<»c<')il>iitiiin  jx.licy,  1*)2-<JIJ 
'rindx-s,  2h 

■rti-o.lnri.-  the  Cr.nt.  .'!•) 
'rii.-.MJorir,  ( (.n<(U'-.-t^  of,  lit". 
■l'li><Ml..-iii-,  Kni[»ror,  and  Attila,  2'.t 
'Ihi'-r^    on    tli<-    d"  (  lir^itioii    of    war, 

l<il>  ;      ixM.  ,•     mi.-ion     of.     Km;   7  ; 

pr.it.  -t  to  Hi-iu:ir.  k.  1  12    CI 
Till!'-.     I'ru-^iiin     Cn<l'rS<<  ri  tary    of 

St.it<-.  '^s,  '.xi 
'Ihirtv    ^''■.lrs    W'.ir,    riiv;ij.'>-.-<    of    tin-, 

:{2':{:. 

'Ihoin-on.  Sir  .1.  .)..  2:i7 

'■   i  hr--.-    KiiiiHror-,  '   Alliiinn-  of  tli.-, 

11 ;»  2<'.  i.'.H.  it;2 

■ril>"riii.>*.  27 

ri>'iilii:iim.  .'d 

'ill-It,  r.-.i, .  of,  1M17.  :!s.  i.vi 

7i"i'«,   till-,  oil  our  r'lson  for  i'oin;.' 

to  w.ir,  7';-.^(/,  2:!n  ii'J 
'lir-o.  .Jl 
•io.-ol;u..|.   \-M> 
'lok.iiio,     rrof.--or.    en    infint     nior- 

tilit  V  in  .l.i|..in.  .tin 
'lol-toi".  ,\I-\.  I.  22 
'1  oMo,.  .1  .  -.-{ 
'iolHtoi.  I^  ,,.  i;2 
Tonkin.  1  It 

lolll.   fill  of,    lii7 

iranl--.  i.  ,   12 
'Ir'-.iti--,    -.in^nty    of.    I'r'"!' ri' k    thf> 

(;r.   I-  oil,  221 
Tn-'ity  -f    th.-   I'lv  |'..w.rH   \s:v.<,  22S 
'Iridtv     of     l^.ndoii      Ih.'i'.t,     >i2.     hJ  ; 


Trt-atv  of  the  Twenty  four  Article*, 
IKH.  h2 

'Jrebinje,  captnn-  of.  \G4 

Trebizonil.  sack  of,  27 

Tr«  its*^  like,    orifjin,    42  ;      principles, 
4«l-47,      02.      220,      2;{t)  ;       PoliHk, 
artui.'  qiiutiil,  VM-Wt 
Treul).  I»r..  2>'.2 

Trevelyan,  Mr.,  attitude  towards 
intervention.  243 

Trilx>ci.  til'-,  i() 

Triple  Ailiaiue,  creation  and  olijcct 
of  the,  n<»  2»».  127-2S,  1H2,  244; 
ren<wiii  in  1nS7,  123;  StinUits 
«ui.';.'<'.'*tion.  l.">l  ;  Italy "s  with- 
drawal. 2t)7.  WKt 

Triple    Allumc-    of    KitlS    (Knjjlami, 

Swt<ien.  Holland  I,  241 
iriple  llntento,  13h,  l.'.l 

'I'rot  lui,  Ceneral,  or^.'ani/J\tion  of 
natiolKil  di-fcnee,  lot'.  ;  threat  to 
J'nisM.in  pri>on«r>,  11112 

Truth  (ihout  til''  Wiir.  the,  extracts 
from,  2«;2 

T.-chirMky,  Herr  von,  i'J4,  2lK) 

Tnuenbiin<i.  S(  rit  Society  of  tlie, 
3S 

Tiin;,'ns<«,  2S 

'I  iini.'<.  IH;  IVc  ii.il  O((npation. 
122  23;    ( i<riii.in  di-.-iL'n.".  2.M 

Tiir;:rniiv.  22 

I'lirki-y.  d.f..it.<l  by  l'u--i.i  1^7S. 
ll'.t;  triliiit.iry  St.it. ■>  of.  i;,7; 
Srliia  and  Mont.  iii-i.'ro  niaki-  war 
on.  1n7i'i.  i.'.it;  Unssi.in  wur 
1^77-7s,  l.'i'.t  ;  |»a(.-  of  San 
St.  fano,  lb<i  »d  :  Au>trias  Note 
to,  (K  tol»  r  7  I'.His.  l(i.",  (17 

Tiirk-i,     2^ ;     in  i>^acr<  «    in     I'.uk'aria 

ls7.'.  7ii.  l.'>7  :>s 
Tn.sla,  U.4 

1  wiiitvfour  ArtiJ.vH.  Tnatv  of  tin- 

1^3l■,  S2 
Tvrol.    Italian.    Cmnan    (!•  si^ns    on. 
121 


C  I'.-'M  s  Work  ..f  til-  ,  2'J.'. 

Ckraiii'-.  I'.t 

Ckraiiiiiir-.   ili-l  r  :b\il  i. 'Ii.    l'.»;     Ku'-.ia 

Hii.l  tl..-.  21 
Cii'  iiiploN  111'  lit .  ijUi-Mt  ion  of.  31s    I '.I 
\  ni..ii     of      I .   I'  ill  rh.      Ik  ii'  !i      iioii. 

]«ihti(!il,  )irojkn.' iiid  I  id.   I.'.'i    'i\ 
Inui-rMln^.  (m  riiian.   pro|.-t   (d  th<'. 

i::2  73 

llal   .MoiiIitalli.>..   lliiliH  (  f  t!,.-.  2s.   2".t 


Indkx  867 

Urban  H,  l'ojx\  proachin^  tlic  I'ir»t  W  iiliH7^'WHki,  22 

C'rusado,  2r>7  W  (iriiil»ad.  21)2 

Urban,     'rurkinli     gun-founder,     21K)  W  iirMuw  UniviTHity.  22 

nole  \\aMhint;t(jn,     (Jtrman     .\ml>aH.Hador, 

Utrecht,  IVaco  of,  1713,  35  warniii^in  to  the  Lwilunm,  'Hn) 

W'cchHclriiann,  13 
WfilmiU.i,  131 

Vndtrland  articltH  publishod,  281  W  riniar,  r)2 

Val-do-(lracc  Hospital,  bomlMirdnirnt,  Wci.s.scnliurj.',  lUJ 

111-12  Wi-ll.s,     [MiLsoiiin^    of,     l)v    CJcrm.'UH, 

Vallmar,  7")  2!M    92 

Vandals,  2ti,  30  \\rlK<hinj;i'r,   11.,  Ln  (Uurre.  dt   IS7<i, 

Van^;iont's,  lli<>,  10  (V/mxw  et   lU-^ixjiitahilitiL^,  H'>  tiolf, 

Varini,  tho,  17  H'J,  IK)  jtot<\  102,  103 

Varzin,  ;">;■>  Wcnoesliius.  Krnixror,  truro  of,  31 

Vazov,  Ivan.  23  Winds,  dLslrihution,  1!> 

V'azow,  .)..  Uulgarinn  jwet.  Under  the  WiTthcr,     Prussian     Anilwssador    in 

Yoke,  ir)8  note  Franco  1870,  W,  !»3 

Venrdi.  the,  of  Tacitus,  ItJ  Wosid,  217 

Vonctia  ceded  to   Italy,  78,  80,   102,  West pliaiia.  coalfields  of,  132 

107,  203-4  Westphalia,  I'eace  of,  3-t 

Versailles,  107-8  \\icks.-ll,  Professor  K.,  310 

Vesjxisian,  27  \\  ieland,  40 

Vienna,  the  Prussian  threat  to,  80  Wiihchushohc,  castl*'  of.  Id") 

Vienna  Coui^rcss,  82,  84  William  1  and  the   Treaty  of  Prague, 

Vienna,  Peace  of,  1804,  05  70;      Pisniarck     and,     1800,     78; 

Villcsexel,  107  sui)[)<jrt   of   Prince    lyojxdd     lh7n, 

Vilna,  (ierinan  atrocities  in,  280  8U-00  ;    reluctance  to  outbreak  of 

VinogradotT,  23  war  with  T'rance,  91  ;  asked  to  give 

Virchow.  Rudolf,  41,  45,  248  guarantee  to   France,  1)3  ;    re|)ortrt 

Visigoths,  29.  30,  110  of    the     parting     with     lJ<-nedelti. 

Viviani.    M..    on    moderation.     183  ;  93-103  ;     the    plan    of    campai^'n, 

on     tJermany's     responsibility     for  104,      105  ;      at     \'ersaillcs,      lo7  ; 

the  war,  207;    statements  on  the  created  EmixTor  of  (icsrmany.  I(i9  ; 

French  and  Cierman  military  pre-  the     address      to      the      Emixror. 

pivrations,    215-10;     coiitradicticm  lltl-li  ;      and     Alexander     11     of 

of  CJornian  statements.  218  Russia,  1 19-~2i»,  153  ;  the  .'^chniilj<le 

Vogt     the     cobbler,    exploit    of,    250  afTair   1887,    122  ;     alliance   of   the 

note  'Three  Kmjx^rors,  158-59 

Volhynia.  19  ^\"iIliam    11,    visit    of    (  hrisfian    IX 

Vohaire.  41  1888.    71;     visit    to    Nicholas    11, 

Voh/n.  newsjmiXT,  21  154  ;    and  the  Austrian  Note,  192  ; 

Vorwdrts,    statt'inents    made    in    the,  telegram    from    the    'Ts<ir    omitteil 

218.278-80  from    the    White    Book.    190;     on 

Vosbt^rg-Kckow.     Dr..     Dcr     Grund-  the     responsibility    for    the     war, 

gcdanke     der     diut.<chen     Kolutiial-  202  ;     on   the   duty   of   olH-diciii'i-. 

■poUtik,  132  note  249  ;    war  manifesto.  251-52.  25S  ; 

Vossische  Zeitunj.  71,  98  mcssaure  to  his  soKiicrs,  285  ;  orders 

regarding  the  Cossacks,  293  ;    and 

Waoner,     a.,      Uandds-u.      Mncht-  the  birth-rate.  319-20 

jHditik,  132  note  WimptTen,    Gcntral.    jK'acc    ncgotia- 

Watrner.  Richard,  42,  4()  tioiis.  105 

Wagner,  y.,  272  WoltT.   Dr.   K.  F..   Di--   Vrhimnt  dtr 

Walehians.     the     name     applied     to  Indo'jerm'Uit  n.  quntr  I.  A~—\S 

C.ermans,  25  WoltT's    Telegram    Bureau,    the    Knis 

Waldersee.    Field-Marshal,    the    Em-  telegram    .-ent    from,    99  ;     un    tlio 

{>eror  William's  orders  to,  285  Agadir  incident.  140 


868 


Index 


Women's     Ppaco     Congreaa    at   Tho 

H«Kuc  1915.  28,').  330 
WorUi's    IVaco    CongrcM.    Hamburg; 

1»97.  UH 
World   War.  Bvnopsis  of  the  rf-mot*' 

causes,    243—14  ;     8ynop«ia    of    the 

near  cauws.  244-45 
Worms,  Dut  of,  16;  {)cace  decree  of, 

31 
W  orth.  liattl.-  of.  ItU 
Wn-schcn  atlair.  the.  56 
N\  iirtemlxTg.    tlie    vote   for   Austria, 

79  ;   and  the  war  of  l87U,  lU3 
Wvcliffe,  41 


•  Yeli.ow  Peril,"  the,  310 
Ypres,  asphyxiating   gases   used   at, 
291 

Zaberv.  militarism  at,  250 

Zak'oskino,  23 

Zctkin.   Frau   Klara,  on  birth  Mrikes, 

32;i-24 
Zimmt-nnann,   Dr.  A.,    Why  EiujUmd 

truikf/i      War.     quotnl.      13S  ;       Die 

Wochf    artiilca    quotni,    i\ii    imlict- 

mrnt  of  France.  147 
Z<juavi's  in  .S<nlis.  2H4 
ZweiglxTgk,  O.  v..  M.P.,  297 


riMNIKI)     Al 
I  UK    I'.AII,  \M  YNK     IIIK-"-; 

I.dMimS       .V       KDIMir  K'.  II 


o 


K 


y- 


^^. 


A    001  374  676 


